---
title: "Causes of Natural Phenomena · Quaestiones naturales"
author: "Plutarch"
translator: "R. Brown, rev. William W. Goodwin"
languages: [grc, en]
shelf: "Philosophy"
section: 2 of 2
url: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-natural-phenomena/2/
cite: "Plutarch, tr. R. Brown, rev. William W. Goodwin, Causes of Natural Phenomena · Quaestiones naturales, section 2. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-natural-phenomena/2/"
---

# Causes of Natural Phenomena · Quaestiones naturales

*Plutarch, tr. R. Brown, rev. William W. Goodwin*

Questions about nature: why sea water does not nourish trees, why octopuses change colour.

> Greek: ed. Grēgorios N. Vernardakēs, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-greekLit, tlg0007.tlg125, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: R. Brown, rev. William W. Goodwin, from the Perseus Digital Library (tlg0007.tlg125.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 2. Sections 20–39

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-natural-phenomena/2/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-natural-phenomena/2/#p-N

[¶0] 20. THE reason seems to be the heat and cold of these animals. For the hart is cold, and the boar is very hot and fiery; therefore the one flies from, the other defends himself against, his pursuers. Now when great store of heat comes to the eyes (as Homer says, with horrid bristles, and eyes darting fire), tears are sweet. Some are of Empedocles’s opinion, who thought that tears proceed from the disturbance of the blood, as whey does from the churning of milk; since therefore boar’s blood is harsh and black, and hart’s blood thin and watery, it is consentaneous that the tears, which the one sheds when excited to anger, and the other when dejected with fear, should be of the same nature.

> Greek: 20. διὰ τίνʼ αἰτίαν τὸ τῶν ἀγρίων συῶν δάκρυον ἡδὺ τὸ δὲ τῶν ἐλάφων ἁλμυρόν ἐστι καὶ φαῦλον; αἰτία δὲ θερμότης καὶ ψυχρότης τούτων, καὶ ψυχρὸν μὲν ὁ ἔλαφος περίθερμον δὲ καὶ πυρῶδες ὁ σῦς· ὅθεν τὸ μὲν φεύγει τὸ δʼ ἀμύνεται τοὺς ἐπιόντας, ὅτε καὶ μάλιστα διὰ τὸν θυμὸν ἐκβάλλει τὸ δάκρυον πολλῆς γὰρ ἐπὶ τὰ ὄμματα θερμότητος φερομένης, ὡς εἴρηται φρίξας εὖ λοφιήν, πῦρ ὀφθαλμοῖσι δεδορκώς· γλυκὺ γίγνεται τὸ ἀποτηκόμενον. ἔνιοι δέ φασιν, ὥσπερ γάλακτος ὀρρόν, τοῦ αἵματος ταραχθέντος, ἐκκρούεσθαι τὸ δάκρυον, ὡς Ἐμπεδοκλῆς. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν τραχὺ καὶ μέλαν τὸ τῶν κάπρων αἷμα διὰ θερμότητα λεπτὸν δὲ καὶ ὑδαρὲς τὸ τῶν ἐλάφων, εἰκότως καὶ τὸ ἀποκρινόμενον ἐν τοῖς θυμοῖς καὶ τοῖς φόβοις ἑκατέρου τοιοῦτον.

[¶1] 21. “The wild sow farrowing, that night falls no rain?” Is it because of plentiful feeding, as in very truth fulness doth produce wantonness? For abundance of nourishment breeds abundance of seed both in animals and plants. Now wild sows live by their own toil, and that with fear; the tame have always food enough, either by nature or given them. Or may it not be ascribed to their rest and exercise? For the tame do rest and go not far from their keepers; the wild get to the mountains, and run about, by which means they waste the nutriment, and consume it upon the whole body. Therefore either through continual converse, or abundance of seed, or because the females feed in herds with the males, the tame sows call to mind coition and stir up lust, as Empedocles talks of men. But in wild sows, which feed apart, desire is cold and dull for want of love and conversation. Or is it true, what Aristotle says, that Homer called the wild boar χλούνης, because he had but one stone? For most boars spoil their stones (he says) by rubbing them against stumps of trees.

> Greek: 21. διὰ τί τῶν ὑῶν αἱ μὲν ἥμεροι, πλεονάκις τίκτουσι καὶ κατʼ ἄλλον ἄλλαι χρόνον, αἱ δʼ ἄγριαι καὶ ἅπαξ καὶ περὶ τὰς αὐτὰς ἅπασαι σχεδὸν ἡμέρας; αὗται δʼ εἰσὶν ἀρχομένου θέρους· διὸ καὶ λέλεκται μηκέτι νυκτὸς ὕειν, ᾗ κεν τέκῃ ἀγροτέρη σῦς. ἦ διὰ πλῆθος τροφῆς, ὄντως ἐν πλησμονῇ Κύπρις; ἀφθονία γὰρ τροφῆς τὸ γόνιμον περίττωμα ποιεῖ καὶ φυτοῖς καὶ ζῴοις· αἱ μὲν οὖν ἄγριαι διʼ αὑτῶν καὶ μετὰ φόβου τὴν τροφὴν ζητοῦσι, ταῖς δʼ ἡμέροις ὑπάρχει διὰ παντὸς ἡ μὲν αὐτοφυὴς ἡ δʼ ἐκ παρασκευῆς. ἢ τὸ τῆς σχολῆς καὶ ἀσχολίας ἅμα συμβαῖνον αἴτιον; αἱ μὲν γὰρ ἀργοῦσι, μὴ βουλόμεναι πόρρω πλανᾶσθαι τῶν συφορβῶν, αἱ δʼ ὀρειβατοῦσαι καὶ περιθέουσαι τὴν τροφὴν διαφοροῦσι καὶ καταναλίσκουσιν εἰς τὸ σῶμα πᾶσαν· ὥστε διὰ τὸ ἀεὶ συνεῖναι ἢ μὴ γίνεσθαι περίττωμα …, ἢ καὶ τὸ συντρέφεσθαι καὶ συναγελάζεσθαι τὰ θήλεα τοῖς ἄρρεσιν, ἀνάμνησιν ποιεῖ τῶν ἀφροδισίων καὶ συνεκκαλεῖται τὴν ὄρεξιν ὡς ἐπʼ ἀνθρώπων Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἐποίησε τῷ δέ τι καὶ πόθος εἴτε διὰ πέψεως ἀμμίσγων· ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἀγρίοις, ἀποτρόφοις οὖσιν ἀλλήλων, τὸ ἄστοργον καὶ δυσεπίμικτον ἀμβλύνει καὶ ἀνασβέννυσι τὰς ὁρμάς. ἢ καὶ τὸ λεγόμενον ὑπʼ Ἀριστοτέλους ἀληθές ἐστιν, ὅτι χλούνην Ὅμηρος ὠνόμασε σῦν τὸν μόνορχιν; τῶν γὰρ πλείστων φησὶ προσκνωμένων τοῖς στελέχεσι θρύπτεσθαι τοὺς ὄρχεις.

[¶2] 22. BECAUSE the flesh of those parts of the body which concoct aliment the best is sweetest; and that concocts best which transpires most by motion and exercise. But the bear uses the fore-feet most in going and running, and in managing of things, as it were with hands.

> Greek: 22. διὰ τί τῆς ἄρκτου φασὶ τὴν χεῖρα γλυκυτάτην ἔχειν σάρκα καὶ φαγεῖν ἡδίστην; ἦ ὅτι τὰ πέττοντα τὴν τροφὴν μάλιστα τοῦ σώματος παρέχει τὸ κρέας ἥδιστον; πέττει δὲ κάλλιστα τὸ διαπνέον, κινούμενον μάλιστα καὶ συγγυμναζόμενον, ὥσπερ ἡ ἄρκτος τῷ μέρει τούτῳ πλεῖστα κινεῖται· καὶ γὰρ ὡς ποσὶ τοῖς ἐμπροσθίοις βαδίζουσα χρῆται καὶ τρέχουσα καὶ ὡς χερσὶν ἀντιλαμβανομένη.

[¶3] 23. WHETHER the dogs, as Empedocles says, “with noses find the steps of all wild beasts,” and draw in those effluvia which the beasts leave in the ground; but the various smells of plants and flowers lying over the footsteps do in spring-time obscure and confound them, and put the dogs to a loss at winding them? Therefore about Etna in Sicily no man keeps any hunting dogs, because abundance of wild marjoram flourishes and grows there the year round, and the perpetual flagrancy of the place destroys the scent of the wild beasts. There is also a tale, how Proserpine, as she was gathering flowers thereabout, was ravished by Pluto; therefore people, revering that place as an asylum, do not catch any creature that feeds thereabout.

> Greek: 23. διὰ τί δυστίβευτος ἡ τοῦ ἔαρος ὥρα; πότερον αἱ κύνες, ὥς φησιν Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, κέμματα θηρείων μελέων μυκτῆρσιν ἐρευνῶσαι τὰς ἀπορροὰς ἀναλαμβάνουσιν, ἃς ἐναπολείπει τὰ θηρία τῇ ὕλῃ, ταύτας δὲ τοῦ ἔαρος ἐξαμαυροῦσι καὶ συγχέουσιν αἱ πλεῖσται τῶν φυτῶν καὶ τῶν ὑλημάτων ὀσμαί, ὑπὲρ τὴν ἄνθησιν ὑπερχεόμεναι καὶ κεραννύμεναι, περιποτῶσι καὶ διαπλανῶσι τὰς κύνας τῆς τῶν θηρίων ὀσμῆς ἐπιλαβέσθαι; διὸ περὶ τὴν Αἴτνην ἐν Σικελίᾳ φασὶ μηδένα κυνηγεῖν· πολὺ γὰρ ἀναφύεσθαι καὶ τεθηλέναι διʼ ἔτους ἴον ὀρεινὸν ἐν τοῖς λειμῶσι, καὶ τὸν τόπον εὐωδίαν ἀεὶ κατέχουσαν ἁρπάζειν τὰς τῶν θηρίων ἀναπνοάς. λέγεται δὲ μῦθος, ὡς τὴν Κόρην ἐκεῖθεν ἀνθολογοῦσαν ὁ Πλούτων ἀφαρπάσειε, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο τιμῶντες καὶ σεβόμενοι τὸ χωρίον ὡς ἄσυλον οὐκ ἐπιτίθενται τοῖς ἐκεῖ νεμομένοις.

[¶4] 24. WHETHER for the foresaid cause? For the full moons bring down the dews; and therefore Alcman calls dew the daughter of Jove and Luna in a verse of his, “Fed by the dew, bred by the Moon and Jove.” For dew is a weak and languid rain, and there is but little heat in the moon; which draws water from the earth, as the sun does; but because it cannot raise it on high, it soon lets it fall.

> Greek: 24. διὰ τί περὶ τὰς πανσελήνους ἥκιστα ταῖς ἰχνοσκοπίαις ἐπιτυγχάνουσιν; διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν; δροσοβόλοι γὰρ αἱ πανσέληνοι· διὸ καὶ τὴν δρόσον ὁ Ἀλκμὰν Διὸς θυγατέρα καὶ Σελήνης προσεῖπε ποιήσας Διὸς θυγάτηρ ἔρσα τρέφει καὶ δίας Σελάνας· ἡ γὰρ δρόσος ἀσθενής ἐστι καὶ ἀδρανὴς ὄμβρος, ἀσθενὲς δὲ καὶ τὸ τῆς σελήνης θερμόν· ὅθεν ἕλκει μὲν ἀπὸ γῆς ὥσπερ ὁ ἥλιος, ἄγειν δʼ εἰς ὕψος μὴ δυναμένη μηδʼ ἀναλαμβάνειν μεθίησιν.

[¶5] 25. WHETHER is it because the wild beasts leave off going far abroad by reason of the cold, and so leave but few signs of themselves? Therefore some say, beasts spare the neighboring places, that they may not be sore put to it by going far abroad in winter, but may always have food ready at hand. Or is it because that for hunting the track alone is not sufficient, but there must be scent also? And things gently dissolved and loosened by heat afford a smell, but too violent cold binds up the scent, and will not let it reach the sense. Therefore they say that unguents and wine smell least in winter and cold weather; for the then concrete air keeps the scent in, and suffers it not to disperse.

> Greek: 25. διὰ τί τὸ δρόσιμον γενόμενον διὰ τοῦ ψύχους δυστίβευτον; πότερον ὅτι τὰ θηρία πόρρω τῶν κοιτῶν ὀκνοῦντα προϊέναι διὰ τὸ κρύος οὐ πολλὰ ποιεῖ σημεῖα· διὸ καί φασιν αὐτὰ φείδεσθαι τῶν πλησίον, ὅπως μὴ κακοπαθῇ πλανώμενα μακρὰν τοῦ χειμῶνος ἀλλʼ ἀεὶ ἐγγύθεν ἔχῃ νέμεσθαι· ἢ δεῖ μὴ μόνον ἔχειν ἴχνη τὸν στιβευόμενον τόπον ἀλλὰ κινεῖν τὴν ὄσφρησιν, κινεῖ δὲ λυόμενα καὶ χαλώμενα μαλακῶς ὑπὸ θερμότητος, ἡ δʼ ἄγαν περίψυξις πηγνύουσα τὰς ὀσμὰς οὐκ ἐᾷ ῥεῖν οὐδὲ κινεῖν τὴν αἴσθησιν· ὅθεν καὶ τὰ μύρα καὶ τὸν οἶνον ἧττον ὄζειν ψύχους καὶ χειμῶνος λέγουσιν· ὁ γὰρ ἀὴρ πηγνύμενος ἵστησι τὰς ὀσμὰς ἐν αὑτῷ καὶ οὐκ ἐᾷ ἀναδίδοσθαι;

[¶6] 26. DOGS eat grass, to make them vomit bile. Swine seek craw-fish, because the eating of them cures the headache. The tortoise, when he has eaten a viper, feeds on wild marjoram. They say, when a bear has surfeited himself and his stomach grows nauseous, he licks up ants, and by devouring them is cured. These creatures know such things neither by experience nor by chance. Whether, as wax draws the bee, and carcasses the vulture afar off by the scent, do craw-fish so draw swine, wild marjoram the tortoise, and ants the bear, by smells and effluvia accommodated to their nature, they being prompted altogether by sense, without any assistance from reason? Or do not the temperaments of the body create appetites in animals, while diseases create these, producing divers acrimonies, sweetnesses, and other unusual and absurd qualities, the humors being altered; as is plain in women with child, who eat stones and earth? Therefore skilful physicians take their prognostic of recovery or death from the appetites of the sick. For Mnesitheus the physician says that, in the beginning of a disease of the lungs, he that craves onions recovers, and he that craves figs dies; because appetites follow the temperament, and the temperament follows diseases. It is therefore probable that beasts, if they fall not into mortal diseases, have such a disposition and temper, that by following their temper they light on their remedies.

> Greek: 26. διὰ τί τὰ ζῷα τὰς βοηθούσας δυνάμεις, ὅταν ἐν πάθει γένηται, ζητεῖ καὶ διώκει καὶ χρώμενα πολλάκις ὠφελεῖται; καθάπερ αἱ κύνες ἐσθίουσι πόαν, ἵνα τὴν χολὴν ἐξεμῶσιν· αἱ δʼ ὕες ἐπὶ τοὺς ποταμίους καρκίνους φέρονται, βοηθοῦνται γὰρ ἐσθίουσαι πρὸς κεφαλαλγίαν· ἡ δὲ χελώνη φαγοῦσα τὴν σάρκα τοῦ ἔχεως ὀρίγανον ἐπεσθίει· τὴν δʼ ἄρκτον λέγουσιν ἀσωμένην τοὺς μύρμηκας ἀναλαμβάνειν τῇ γλώττῃ καὶ καταπίνουσαν ἀπαλλάττεσθαι· τούτων δʼ οὔτε πεῖρα καὶ περίπτωσις γέγονεν αὐτοῖς. πότερον οὖν, ὥσπερ τὰ κηρία τὴν μέλιτταν τῇ ὀσμῇ καὶ τὰ κενέβρεια τὸν γῦπα κινεῖ καὶ προσάγεται πόρρωθεν, οὕτως οὖν καὶ σῦς οἱ καρκίνοι καὶ τὴν χελώνην ἡ ὀρίγανος, αἱ δὲ μυρμηκιαὶ τὴν ἄρκτον ὀσμαῖς καὶ ῥεύμασι προσφερέσι καὶ οἰκείοις ἕλκουσιν, οὐ λογισμῷ τοῦ συμφέροντος ἀγούσης τῆς αἰσθήσεως· ἢ τὰς ὀρέξεις ἐπιφέρουσι τοῖς ζῴοις αἱ τῶν σωμάτων κράσεις, ἃς αἱ νόσοι ποιοῦσι, διαφόρους δριμύτητας ἢ γλυκύτητας ἤ τινας ἄλλας ἐντίκτουσαι ποιότητας ἀήθεις καὶ ἀτόπους, τῶν ὑγρῶν τρεπομένων; ὡς δῆλόν ἐστιν ἐπὶ τῶν γυναικῶν, ὅταν κύωσι, καὶ λίθους καὶ γῆν προσφερομένων διὸ καὶ τῶν νοσούντων ταῖς ὀρέξεσιν οἱ χαρίεντες ἰατροὶ προΐσασι τοὺς ἀσώτως ἢ σωτηρίως ἔχοντας· ἱστορεῖ γοῦν Μνησίθεος ἰατρὸς ἐν ἀρχῇ πνευμονίας τὸν ἐπιθυμήσαντα κρομμύων σῴζεσθαι τὸν δὲ σύκων ἀπόλλυσθαι, διὰ τὸ ταῖς κράσεσι τὰς ὀρέξεις τὰς δὲ κράσεις τοῖς πάθεσιν ἕπεσθαι. πιθανὸν οὖν ἐστι καὶ τῶν θηρίων τὰ μὴ παντελῶς ὀλεθρίοις μηδʼ ἀναιρετικοῖς περιπίπτοντα νοσήμασι ταύτην τὴν διάθεσιν καὶ κρᾶσιν ἴσχειν, ὑφʼ ἧς ἐπὶ τὰ σῴζοντα φέρεται καὶ ἄγεται ταῖς ὀρέξεσιν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν.

[¶7] 27. Is it because the changing of the sweet must into wine is concoction, but cold hinders concoction, because this is caused by heat? Or, on the contrary, is the proper taste of the grape sweet, and is it then said to be ripe, when the sweetness is equally diffused all over it; but does cold, not suffering the heat of the grape to exhale, and keeping it in, conserve the sweetness of the grape? And this is the reason that, in a rainy vintage, must ferments but little; for fermentation proceeds from heat, which the cold does check.

> Greek: 27. διὰ τί τὸ γλεῦκος, ἂν ὑπὸ ψύχους περιέχηται τὸ ἀγγεῖον, γλυκὺ διαμένει πολὺν χρόνον; πότερον ὅτι πέψις ἐστὶ τοῦ γλεύκους ἡ εἰς τὸ οἰνῶδες μεταβολὴ κωλύει δὲ τὴν πέψιν ἡ ψυχρότης, ὑπὸ θερμοῦ γὰρ ἡ πέψις· ἢ τοὐναντίον, οἰκεῖός ἐστι τῆς σταφυλῆς χυμὸς ὁ γλυκύς, διὸ καὶ πεπαίνεσθαι λέγεται τὸ γλυκὺ κιρνώμενον ἡ δὲ ψυχρότης οὐκ ἐῶσα διαπνεῖν ἀλλὰ συνέχουσα τὸ θερμόν, τὴν γλυκύτητα διατηρεῖ τοῦ γλεύκους; αὕτη δʼ ἐστὶν αἰτία καὶ τῶν τρυγωμένων ὄμβρῳ τὸ γλεῦκος ἧττον ἀναζεῖν· ἡ γὰρ ζέσις ὑπὸ θερμότητος τὴν δὲ θερμότητα κατέχει καὶ συστέλλει τὸ ψυχρόν.

[¶8] 28. Is it because his teeth stand so far within his head, that he cannot well come at the thread? For his lips, by reason of their thickness and largeness, meet close before. Or does he rather rely on his paws and mouth, and with those rend the toil, and with this defend himself against the hunters? His chief refuge is rolling and wallowing; therefore, rather than stand gnawing the toil, he rolls often about, and so clears himself, having no occasion for his teeth.

> Greek: 28. διὰ τί τῶν θηρίων ἡ ἄρκτος ἥκιστα διεσθίει τὰ δίκτυα, καίτοι καὶ λύκοι καὶ ἀλώπεκες διεσθίουσι; πότερον ἐνδοτάτω τοὺς ὀδόντας ἔχουσα τοῦ χάσματος ἥκιστα πρὸς τὰ λίνα ἐξικνεῖται, προεμπίπτει γὰρ τὰ χείλη διὰ πάχος καὶ μέγεθος· ἢ μᾶλλον ἰσχύουσα ταῖς χερσὶ ῥήγνυσι καὶ διασπᾷ τὸν βρόχον· ἢ καὶ ταῖς χερσὶν ἅμα χρῆται καὶ τῷ στόματι, ταῖς μὲν διασπῶσα τὸ λίνον τῷ δʼ ἀμυνομένη τοὺς διώκοντας; οὐδενὸς δʼ ἧττον αὐτῇ βοηθοῦσιν αἱ περικαλινδήσεις· διὸ μᾶλλον ἢ διασπᾶν τὰ λίνα πραγματευομένη πολλάκις ἐκκυβιστᾷ καὶ σῴζεται, ἀμὴ καὶ δέοι ἡ τῶν ὀδόντων.

[¶9] 29. IT is not (as some are of opinion) that heat is a quality, and cold only a privation of that quality, and so that an entity is even less a cause than a non-entity. But we do it because Nature has attributed admiration to what is rare, and she puts men upon enquiry how any thing comes to pass that seldom happens. As Euripides saith,
Behold the boundless Heaven on high,
Bearing the earth in his moist arms,—
what wonders he brings out by night, and what beauty he shows forth by day!... The rainbow and the varied beauty of the clouds by day, and the lights which burst forth by night...

> Greek: 29. τίς ἡ αἰτία, διʼ ἣν τὰ ψυχρὰ τῶν ὑδάτων οὐ θαυμάζομεν ἀλλὰ τὰ θερμά, καίτοι δῆλον ὅτι θερμότης αἰτία τούτων ὡς ψυχρότης ἐκείνων; οὐ γὰρ, ὡς ἔνιοι νομίζουσιν, ἡ μὲν θερμότης δύναμίς ἐστιν ἡ δὲ ψυχρότης στέρησις θερμότητος· ἐπεὶ πλειόνων αἴτιον ἐφαίνετο τὸ μὴ ὂν τοῦ ὄντος. ἀλλʼ ἔοικε τῷ σπανίῳ τὸ θαυμάσιον ἡ φύσις νέμουσα πῶς; γίγνεται ζητεῖν τὸ μὴ πολλάκις γιγνόμενον.
ὁρᾷς τὸν ὑψοῦ τόνδʼ ἄπειρον αἰθέρα
καὶ γῆν πέριξ ἔχονθʼ ὑγραῖς ἐν ἀγκάλαις
ὅσα μὲν ἔρχεται φέρων θεάματα νυκτός, ὅσον δὲ μεθʼ ἡμέραν κάλλος ἀναδείκνυσιν; οἱ δὲ πολλοὶ τὴν τούτων φύσιν οὐ θαυμάζουσιν, ἴριδας δὲ καὶ ποικίλματα νεφῶν ἡμέρας καὶ σέλα ῥηγνύμενα πομφόλυγος δίκην νυκτὸς … κεκόσμηται.

[¶10] 30. Is it because very fat goats (τράγοι) are less able to procreate, nay, scarce able to use coition, by reason of their fatness Seed is the superfluity of the aliment which is allotted to the body: now, when either an animal or a plant is of a very strong constitution and grows fat, it is a sign that all the nourishment is spent within, and that there is little and base excrement, or none at all.

> Greek: 30. διὰ τί τῶν ἀμπέλων τὰς ἀκάρπους, τοῖς δʼ ἀκρέμοσι καὶ ἔρνεσιν εὐτροφούσας τραγᾶν λέγομεν; ἦ ὅτι τῶν τράγων οἱ σφόδρα πίονες ἧττόν εἰσι γόνιμοι καὶ μόλις ὑπὸ πιμελῆς ὀχεύουσι; τὸ γὰρ σπέρμα περίττωμα τῆς τροφῆς ἐστι τῆς τῷ σώματι προστιθεμένης· ὅταν οὖν ἢ ζῷον ἢ δένδρον εὐεκτῇ καὶ παχύνηται, τοῦτο σημεῖόν ἐστι τοῦ τὴν τροφὴν ἐν ἑαυτῷ καταναλισκομένην μηθὲν ἢ μικρόν τι καὶ ἀγεννὲς περίττωμα ποιεῖν.

[¶11] 31. Is it as baldness happens to great wine-bibbers, the heat of the wine evaporating the moisture? Or, as Empedocles saith, “the putrefied water in the wood becomes wine beneath the bark,”... thus, when the vine is outwardly irrigated with wine, it is as fire to the vine, and destroys the nutritive faculty. Or, because wine is obstructive, it gets into the roots, stops the passages, and so hinders any moisture from coming to the plant to make it grow and thrive. Or, it may seem contrary to Nature that that should return into the vine which came out of it; for whatsover moisture comes from plants can neither nourish nor be again a part of the plant.

> Greek: 31. διὰ τί ἄμπελος οἴνῳ ῥαινομένη, μάλιστα τῷ ἐξ αὑτῆς, ἀναξηραίνεται; πότερον, ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς πολυπόταις γίνεται φαλάκρωσις, ὑπὸ θερμότητος τοῦ οἴνου τὸ ὑγρὸν ἐξατμίζοντος· ἢ φὺ … τὸ οἰνῶδές ἐστιν, ὥς φησιν Ἐμπεδοκλῆς οἶνον ὑπὸ φλοιοῦ πέλεσθαι σαπὲν ἐν ξύλῳ ὕδωρ· ὅταν οὖν ἔξωθεν οἴνῳ βρέχηται, γίγνεται πῦρ ἐπὶ πῦρ τῇ ἀμπέλῳ καὶ τοῦ τρέφοντος … δύναμιν ἐξίστησιν ἡ κρᾶσις· ἢ στυπτικὴν φύσιν ἔχων ὁ ἄκρατος ἐνδύεται ταῖς ῥίζαις, καὶ τοὺς πόρους συναγαγὼν καὶ πυκνώσας οὐ διίησι τὸ ὕδωρ εἰς τὸ φυτόν, ᾧ εὐθαλεῖν καὶ βλαστάνειν πέφυκεν ἢ καὶ τοῦτο μᾶλλον εἰκὸς εἶναι τῇ ἀμπέλῳ παρὰ φύσιν, τὸ ἐξ αὐτῆς ἀπιὸν εἰς αὐτὴν ἐπανιὸν πάλιν δέχεσθαι; τῆς γὰρ ἐν τοῖς φυτοῖς ὑγρότητος ἤνθει καί τι τρέφειν μηδὲ προστίθεσθαι μηδὲ μέρος εἶναι τοῦ φυ … Cur inter omnes arbores sola palma contra impositum onus adsurgit?

[¶12] 32. Is it that the fiery and spiritual power which it hath, being once provoked and (as it were) angered, putteth forth itself so much the more, and mounteth upward? Or is it because the weight, forcing the boughs suddenly, oppresseth and keepeth down the airy substance which they have, and driveth all of it inward; but the same afterwards, having resumed strength again, maketh head afresh, and more eagerly withstandeth the weight? Or, lastly, is it that the softer and more tender branches, not able to sustain the violence at first, so soon as the burden resteth quiet, by little and little lift up themselves, and make a show as if they rose up against it?

> Greek: 32. Utrum quod ignea et spirabilis facultas, qua maxime pollet, quum tentatur et irritatur, sese exercens magis et magis erigit? An quoniam pondus ramos subito urgens, aerem omnem qui in hi est, oppressum cedere retro cogat, qni deinde resumptis paullo viribus, adversum onus aerius rursus instat: An molles et tenerae virgae impetum non sustinentes, quum onus quiescit, paullatim se erigunt, et speciem, quaei contra illud adsurgant, praebent?

[¶13] 33. Is it because it is more cold, and withal hath less air in it? Or because it containeth much salt from the earth mingled therewith?—now it is well known that salt above all other things causeth leanness. Or because standing still, and not exercised with running and stirring, it getteth a certain malignant quality, which is hurtful to both plants and animals, and is the cause that it is neither well concocted nor able to feed and nourish any thing? Hence it is that all dead waters of pools are unwholesome, for that they cannot digest and despatch those harmful qualities which they borrow of the evil property of the air or of the earth.

> Greek: 33. Quare aqua de puteis hausta minus alit quam quae de fonte aut caelo manat? An quia frigidior magis sit et parum quoque aeris habeat: An quod salis multum immixta sibi de terra habeat; sal autem maciem, si quid aliud, facit: An quod pigra nec cursu exercita, qualitatem aliquam malam adquirat, quae stirpibus et animantibus contraria, in causa est quod nec bene concoquatur nec nutrire quicquam possit: Hinc et stagnantes aquae minus probae cenaentur, quod injuriae quae vel ab aeris mala qualitate vel a terra accipiunt, digerere nequeant.

[¶14] 34. Let us likewise bestir our feet,
As fast as Western winds do fleet. Is it not because this wind is wont to blow when the sky is very well cleansed, and the air is exceeding clear and without all clouds?—for the thickness and impurity of the air doth not a little impeach and interrupt the course of the winds. Or is it rather because the sun, striking through a cold wind with his beams, is the cause that it passeth the faster away?—for whatsoever of cold is drawn in by the force of the winds, when the same is overcome by heat, as it were its enemy, we must think, is driven and set forward further and with greater celerity.

> Greek: 34. Cur Zephyrus ventorum omnium celerrimus vulgo fertur, et Homerus: Nos quoque cum Zephyri curramus flatibus una? An quod aere perpurgato et minime nebuloso, fiare soleat? aeris enim densitae et impuritas ventorum cursum non mediocriter impedit. An quod sol radiis suis fiatum frigidum perstringens, quo velocius feratur, auctor est? Quicquid enim frigidi ventorum vi contrahitur, id a calore veluti hoste supcratum, longius et citius propelli credendum est.

[¶15] 35. WHETHER is it because the passages of their vital spirits are exceeding strait, and, if it chance that smoke be gotten into them and there kept in and intercepted, it is enough to stop the poor bees’ breath,—yea, and to strangle them quite? Or is not the acrimony and bitterness (think you) of the smoke in cause—for bees are delighted with sweet things, and in very truth they have no other nourishment; and therefore no marvel if they detest and abhor smoke, as a thing for the bitterness most adverse and contrary unto them. Therefore honey-masters, when they make a smoke for to drive away bees, are wont to burn bitter herbs, as hemlock, centaury, etc.

> Greek: 35. Cur apes fumum ferre nequeant? Quod meatus spiritus vitalis sane quam angustos habeant. At is fumo interceptus et conclusus angit et propemodum ad mortem apes adigit. An acredo amaritudoque fumi in causa eεt: gaudent enim dulcibus apes neqae alio nutrimento uluntur: itaque ut contrariam et noxiam rem propter amaritudinem, fumum detestantur. Qua de causa mellarii quum fumum abigendis apibus faciunt, amaras herbae, ut cicutam et centanrium, incendere solent.

[¶16] 36. Is it not because it is a creature that wonderfully delighteth in purity, cleanliness, and elegancy, and withal hath a marvellous quick sense of smelling? Because therefore such unclean dealings between man and woman are wont to leave behind much filthiness and impurity, the bees both sooner find them out and also conceive the greater hatred against them. Hereupon it is that in Theocritus the shepherd pleasantly sendeth Venus away unto Anchises to be well stung with bees for her adultery:
Now to mount Ida, to Anchises go,
Where mighty oaks and cypresses do grow;
Where hives and trees with honey sweet abound,
And both with humming noise of bees resound.
And Pindar saith: “Thou little creature, who honey-combs dost frame, and with thy sting hast pricked false impure Rhoecus for his lewd villanies.”

> Greek: 36. Cur apes citius pungunt qui stuprum dudum fecerunt? An quod animal est munditiae et elegantiae perquam studiosum; praeterea olfactus sensu valet plurimum? Quum itaque impuri congressus propter impudicitiam et immoderatam libidinem soleant esae immundiores: et citius ab apibus deprehenduntur et odium vehementius adversus illos concipiunt. Unde apud Theocritum jocose Venus ad Anchisen a pastore ablegatur, uti apum aculeis propter adulterium commissum pungatur:
Te confer ad Idam,
confer ad Anchisen, ubi quercus atque cypirus
crascit, apum strepit atque domus mellifiua bombis.
Et Pindarus: Parvula favorum fabricatrix, quae Rhoecum pupugisti aculeo, domans illius perfidiam.

[¶17] 37. Is it because he can comprehend nothing by imagination nor call a thing to mind, which are gifts and virtues proper to man alone; and therefore, seeing he cannot discern the party that offered him injury, he supposeth that to be his enemy which seemeth in his eye to threaten him, and of it he goes about to be revenged? Or is it that he thinks the stone, while it runs along the ground, to be some wild beast, and according to his nature he intendeth to catch it first; but afterwards, when he seeth himself deceived and put besides his reckoning, he setteth upon the man? Or rather, doth he not hate the man and the stone both alike, but pursueth that only which is next unto him?

> Greek: 37. Cur lupae certo anni tempore omnes intra duodecim dies pariunt? An quia neque cogitatione comprehendere quicquam nec reminisci (quibus solus homo virtutibus valet) potest? itaque quum mente non discernat a quo injuria fuerit illata, id tantum. quod ob oculos minaciter versatur, inimicum esse existimat deque eo vindictam sumere parat. An lapidem, dum per terram mittitur, ferarn aliquam esse autumans, pro ingenio hanc prius capere conatur, deinde quum viderit se opinione sua frustrari, hominem rursus invadit? An quod ad id quod missum fuerit, et hominem ipsum aequaliter odit, et id quod proximius est, insectatur?

[¶18] 38. ANTIPATER in his History of Animals affirms, that shewolves exclude forth their young ones about the time that mast trees shed their blossoms, for upon the taste thereof their wombs open; but if there be none of such blooms to be had, then their young die within the body and never come to light. Moreover, he saith, those countries which bring not forth oaks and mast are never troubled nor spoiled with wolves. Some attribute all this to a tale that goes of Latona; who being with child, and finding no abiding place of rest and safety by reason of Juno for the space of twelve days, went to Delos, and, being transmuted by Jupiter into a wolf, obtained at his hands that all wolves for ever after might within that time be delivered of their young.

> Greek: 38. Quare canes relicto homine qui jecit, lapidum morsu insectantur? Antipater in libro de Animalibus partum lupas projicere adaerit, quum glandiferae arbores fiorem abjiciunt, quo gustato, uteri illarum reserantur: quum ejus copia non est, partum in ipso corpore emori, nec in lucem venire posse: praeterea regiones illas a Iupis non vastari, quae glandium quercuumque feraces non sunt. Quidam ad fabulam Latonae referunt; quae quum uterum ferret nec uspiam tuta prae Junone esae posset, duodecim diebus, quibus in Delum proficiscebatur, in lupum a Iove mutata, ut deinceps omnes lupae eo ipso tempore parere possint, impetravit.

[¶19] 39. Is it because depth is the mother of darkness, so that it doth dim and mar the sunbeams before they can descend so low as it? As for the uppermost superficies of the water, because it is immediately affected by the sun, it must needs receive the white brightness of the light; the which Empedocles verily approveth in these verses:
A river in the bottom seems
By shade of color black;
The like is seen in caves and holes,
By depth, where light they lack.
Or, since the bottom of the sea and of great rivers is often full of mud, doth it by reflection of the sunbeams represent the like color that the said mud hath? Or is it more probable that the water toward the bottom is not pure and sincere, but corrupted with an earthy quality,— as continually carrying with it somewhat of that by which it runneth and wherewith it is stirred,—and the same settling once to the bottom causeth it to be more troubled and less transparent?

> Greek: 39. Cur aqua in summa parte alba, in fundo vero nigra spectatur? An quod profunditae nigredinis mater est, ut quae solis radios prius quam ad eam descendant, obtundat et Iabefactet? Superficies autem, quoniam continuo a sole afficitur, candorem luminis recipiat oportet. Quod ipsum et Empedocles approbat:
et niger in fundo fiuvii color exstat ab umbra,
atque cavernosis itidem spectatur in antris.
An limo plerumque oppletus fluminum marisque fundus, talem de se colorem per solis refiexum parit, quali utique is praeditus est? An probabilius est, aquam minime, quae illis est, puram et sinceram esse, sed terrea qualitate (utpote quae continuo, qua currit vel agitatur, aliquid ex ea advehat) imbutam, quum ad fundum residet, turbidiorem et minus perspicuam efficit?