---
title: "On the Eating of Flesh · De esu carnium"
author: "Plutarch"
translator: "William Baxter, rev. William W. Goodwin"
languages: [grc, en]
shelf: "Philosophy"
url: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/
cite: "Plutarch, tr. William Baxter, rev. William W. Goodwin, On the Eating of Flesh · De esu carnium. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/"
---

# On the Eating of Flesh · De esu carnium

*Plutarch, tr. William Baxter, rev. William W. Goodwin*

Two speeches against eating meat: you ask why Pythagoras abstained; ask rather what moved the first man to taste flesh.

> Greek: ed. Grēgorios N. Vernardakēs, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-greekLit, tlg0007.tlg131, tlg0007.tlg132, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: William Baxter, rev. William W. Goodwin, from the Perseus Digital Library (tlg0007.tlg131.perseus-eng4, tlg0007.tlg132.perseus-eng3). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## Contents

1. [Speech I](https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/1.md)
2. [Speech II](https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/2.md)

## 1. Speech I

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/1/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/1/#p-N

[¶0] 1. You ask of me then for what reason it was that Pythagoras abstained from eating of flesh. I for my part do much admire in what humor, with what soul or reason, the first man with his mouth touched slaughter, and reached to his lips the flesh of a dead animal, and having set before people courses of ghastly corpses and ghosts, could give those parts the names of meat and victuals, that but a little before lowed, cried, moved, and saw; how his sight could endure the blood of slaughtered, flayed, and mangled bodies; how his smell could bear their scent; and how the very nastiness happened not to offend the taste, while it chewed the sores of others, and participated of the saps and juices of deadly wounds.
Crept the raw hides, and with a bellowing sound
Roared the dead limbs; the burning entrails groaned.
This indeed is but a fiction and fancy; but the fare itself is truly monstrous and prodigious, — that a man should have a stomach to creatures while they yet bellow, and that he should be giving directions which of things yet alive and speaking is fittest to make food of, and ordering the several manners of the seasoning and dressing them and serving them up to tables. You ought rather, in my opinion, to have enquired who first began this practice, than who of late times left it off.

> Greek: 1. ἀλλὰ σὺ μὲν ἐρωτᾷς; τίνι λόγῳ Πυθαγόρας ἀπείχετο σαρκοφαγίας, ἐγὼ δὲ θαυμάζω καὶ τίνι πάθει καὶ ποίᾳ ψυχῇ ἢ λόγῳ ὁ πρῶτος ἄνθρωπος ἥψατο φόνου στόματι καὶ τεθνηκότος ζῴου χείλεσι προσήψατο σαρκός· καὶ νεκρῶν σωμάτων καὶ ἑώλων προθέμενος τραπέζας ὄψα καὶ τρυφὰς καὶ προσέτι εἰπεῖν τὰ μικρὸν ἔμπροσθεν βρυχώμενα μέρη καὶ φθεγγόμενα καὶ κινούμενα καὶ βλέποντα· πῶς ἡ ὄψις ὑπέμεινε τὸν φόνον σφαζομένων δερομένων διαμελιζομένων, πῶς ἡ ὄσφρησις ἤνεγκε τὴν ἀποφοράν πῶς τὴν γεῦσιν οὐκ ἀπέτρεψεν ὁ μολυσμὸς ἑλκῶν ψαύουσαν ἀλλοτρίων καὶ τραυμάτων θανασίμων χυμοὺς· καὶ ἰχῶρας ἀπολαμβάνουσαν.
εἷρπον μὲν ῥινοί, κρέα δʼ ἀμφʼ ὀβελοῖς ἐμεμύκει
ὀπταλέα τε καὶ ὠμά, βοῶν δʼ ὣς γίγνετο φωνὴ
τοῦτο πλάσμα καὶ μῦθός ἐστι, τὸ δέ γε δεῖπνον ἀληθῶς τερατῶδες, πεινῆν τινα τῶν μυκωμένων ἔτι, καὶ διδάσκοντα ἀφʼ ὧν δεῖ τρέφεσθαι ζώντων ἔτι καὶ λαλούντων, καὶ διαταττόμενον ἀρτύσεις τινὰς καὶ ὀπτήσεις καὶ παραθέσεις· τούτων ἔδει ζητεῖν τὸν πρῶτον ἀρξάμενον οὐ τὸν ὀψὲ παυσάμενον ἢ τοῖς μὲν πρώτοις ἐκείνοις ἐπιχειρήσασι σαρκοφαγεῖν τὴν αἰτίαν ἂν εἴποι τις πᾶσαν εἶναι τὴν ἀπορίαν·

[¶1] 2. And truly, as for those people who first ventured upon eating of flesh, it is very probable that the whole reason of their so doing was scarcity and want of other food; for it is not likely that their living together in lawless and extravagant lusts, or their growing wanton and capricious through the excessive variety of provisions then among them, brought them to such unsociable pleasures as these, against Nature. Yea, had they at this instant but their sense and voice restored to them, I am persuaded they would express themselves to this purpose: “Oh! happy you, and highly favored of the Gods, who now live! Into what an age of the world are you fallen, who share and enjoy among you a plentiful portion of good things! What abundance of things spring up for your use! What fruitful vineyards you enjoy! What wealth you gather from the fields! What delicacies from trees and plants, which you may gather! You may glut and fill yourselves without being polluted. As for us, we fell upon the most dismal and affrighting part of time, in which we were exposed by our first production to manifold and inextricable wants and necessities. As yet the thickened air concealed the heaven from our view, and the stars were as yet confused with a disorderly huddle of fire and moisture and violent fluxions of winds. As yet the sun was not fixed to an unwandering and certain course, so as to distinguish morning and evening, nor did he bring back the seasons in order crowned with wreaths from the fruitful harvest. The land was also spoiled by the inundations of disorderly rivers; and a great part of it was deformed with sloughs, and utterly wild by reason of deep quagmires, unfertile forests, and woods. There was then no production of tame fruits, nor any instruments of art or invention of wit. And hunger gave no time, nor did seed-time then stay for the yearly season. What wonder is it if we made use of the flesh of beasts contrary to Nature, when mud was eaten and the bark of wood, and when it was thought a happy thing to find either a sprouting grass or a root of any plant! But when they had by chance tasted of or eaten an acorn, they danced for very joy about some oak or esculus, calling it by the names of life-giver, mother, and nourisher. And this was the only festival that those times were acquainted with; upon all other occasions, all things were full of anguish and dismal sadness. But whence is it that a certain ravenousness and frenzy drives you in these happy days to pollute yourselves with blood, since you have such an abundance of things necessary for your subsistence? Why do you belie the earth as unable to maintain you? Why do you profane the lawgiver Ceres, and shame the mild and gentle Bacchus, as not furnishing you with sufficiency? Are you not ashamed to mix tame fruits with blood and slaughter? You are indeed wont to call serpents, leopards, and lions savage creatures; but yet yourselves are defiled with blood, and come nothing behind them in cruelty. What they kill is their ordinary nourishment, but what you kill is your better fare.”

> Greek: 2. οὐ γὰρ ἐπιθυμίαις ἀνόμοις συνδιάγοντες οὐδʼ ἐν περιουσίᾳ τινὶ ἀναγκαίων ὑβρίσαντες εἰς ἡδονὰς παρὰ φύσιν ἀσυμφύλους ἐπὶ ταῦτʼ ἦλθον· ἀλλʼ εἴποιεν ἂν αἴσθησιν ἐν τῷ παρόντι καὶ φωνὴν λαβόντες· ὦ μακάριοι. καὶ θεοφιλεῖς οἱ νῦν ὄντες ὑμεῖς οἷον βίου λαχόντες αἰῶνα καρποῦσθε καὶ νέμεσθε κλῆρον ἀγαθῶν ἄφθονον, ὅσα φύεται ὑμῖν; ὅσα τρυγᾶται; ὅσον πλοῦτον ἐκ πεδίων, ὅσας ἀπὸ φυτῶν ἡδονὰς δρέπεσθαι πάρεστιν; ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν καὶ τρυφᾶν μὴ μιαινομένοις. ἡμᾶς δὲ σκυθρωπότατον καὶ φοβερώτατον ἐδέξατο βίου καὶ χρόνου μέρος, εἰς πολλὴν καὶ ἀμήχανον ἐκπεσόντας ὑπὸ τῆς πρώτης γενέσεως ἀπορίαν ἔτι μὲν οὐρανὸν ἔκρυπτεν ἀήρ, καὶ ἄστρα θολερῷ καὶ δυσδιαστατοῦντι πεφυρμένα ὑγρῷ καὶ πυρὶ καὶ ζάλαις ἀνέμων οὔπω δʼ ἥλιος ἵδρυτο ἀπλανῆ καὶ βέβαιον
ἔχων δρόμον ἠὼ
καὶ δύσιν ἔκρινεν, περὶ δʼ ἢγαγεν αὖθις ὀπίσσω
καρποφόροισιν ἐπιστέψας κάλυκος στεφάνοισιν
ὥρας· γῆ δʼ ὕβριστο
ποταμῶν ἐκβολαῖς ἀτάκτοις, καὶ πολλὰ λίμναισιν ἄμορφα καὶ πηλοῖς βαθέσι καὶ λόχμαις ἀφόροις καὶ ὕλαις ἐξηγρίωτο· φορᾶς δʼ ἡμέρων καρπῶν καὶ τέχνης ὄργανον οὐδὲν οὐδὲ μηχανὴ σοφίας· ὁ δὲ λιμὸς οὐκ ἐδίδου χρόνον οὐδʼ ὥρας ἐτησίους σπόρος οὐκ ὢν τότʼ ἀνέμενε.. τί θαυμαστόν, εἰ ζῴων ἐχρησάμεθα σαρξὶ παρὰ φύσιν, ὅτʼ ἰλὺς ἠσθίετο καὶ φλοιὸς ἐβρώθη ξύλου, καὶ ἄγρωστιν εὑρεῖν βλαστάνουσαν ἢ φλεώ τινα ῥίζαν εὐτυχὲς ἦν; βαλάνου δὲ γευσάμενοι καὶ φαγόντες ἐχόρευσαν ὑφʼ ἡδονῆς περὶ δρῦν τινα καὶ φηγόν, ζείδωρον καὶ μητέρα καὶ τροφὸν ἀποκαλοῦντες· ἐκείνην ὁ τότε βίος ἑορτὴν ἔγνω, τὰ δʼ ἄλλα φλεγμονῆς ἦν ἅπαντα μεστὰ καὶ στυγνότητος. ὑμᾶς δὲ τοὺς νῦν τίς λύσσα καὶ τίς οἶστρος ἄγει πρὸς μιαιφονίαν, οἷς τοσαῦτα περίεστι τῶν ἀναγκαίων; τί καταψεύδεσθε τῆς γῆς ὡς· τρέφειν μὴ δυναμένης; τί τὴν θεσμοφόρον ἀσεβεῖτε Δήμητρα καὶ τὸν ἡμερίδην καὶ μειλίχιον δε εσυ ξαρνιυμ αἰσχύνετε Διόνυσον, ὡς οὐχ ἱκανὰ παρὰ τούτων λαμβάνοντες; οὐκ αἰδεῖσθε τοὺς ἡμέρους καρποὺς αἵματι καὶ φόνῳ μιγνύοντες; ἀλλὰ δράκοντας ἀγρίους καλεῖτε καὶ παρδάλεις καὶ λέοντας, αὐτοὶ δὲ μιαιφονεῖτε εἰς ὠμότητα καταλιπόντες ἐκείνοις οὐδέν· ἐκείνοις μὲν γὰρ ὁ φόνος τροφή, ὑμῖν δʼ ὄψον ἐστίν.

[¶2] 3. For we eat not lions and wolves by way of revenge; but we let those go, and catch the harmless and tame sort, and such as have neither stings nor teeth to bite with, and slay them; which, so may Jove help us, Nature seems to us to have produced for their beauty and comeliness only. [Just as if one seeing the river Nilus overflowing its banks, and thereby filling the whole country with genial and fertile moisture, should not at all admire that secret power in it that produces plants and plenteousness of most sweet and useful fruits, but beholding somewhere a crocodile swimming in it, or an asp crawling along, or mice (savage and filthy creatures), should presently affirm these to be the occasion of all that is amiss, or of any want or defect that may happen. Or as if indeed one contemplating this land or ground, how full it is of tame fruits, and how heavy with ears of corn, should afterwards espy somewhere in these same cornfields an ear of darnel or a wild vetch, and thereupon neglect to reap and gather in the corn, and fall a complaining of these. Such another thing it would be, if one — hearing the harangue of some advocate at some bar or pleading, swelling and enlarging and hastening towards the relief of some impending danger, or else, by Jupiter, in the impeaching and charging of certain audacious villanies or indictments, flowing and rolling along, and that not in a simple and poor strain, but with many sorts of passions all at once, or rather indeed with all sorts, in one and the same manner, into the many and various and differing minds of either hearers or judges that he is either to turn and change, or else, by Jupiter, to soften, appease, and quiet — should overlook all this business, and never consider or reckon upon the labor or struggle he had undergone, but pick up certain loose expressions, which the rapid motion of the discourse had carried along with it, as by the current of its stream, and so had slipped and escaped the rest of the oration, and hereupon undervalue the orator.]

> Greek: 3. οὐ γὰρ δὴ λέοντὰς γʼ ἀμυνόμενοι καὶ λύκους ἐσθίομεν· ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν ἐῶμεν, τὰ δʼ ἀβλαβῆ καὶ χειροήθη καὶ ἄκεντρα καὶ νωδὰ πρὸς τὸ δακεῖν συλλαμβάνοντες ἀποκτιννύομεν, ἃ νὴ Δία καὶ κάλλους ἕνεκα καὶ χάριτος ἡ φύσις ἔοικεν ἐξενεγκεῖν. ὅμοιον ὡς εἴ τις τὸν Νεῖλον ὁρῶν πλημμυροῦντα καὶ τὴν χώραν ἐμπιπλάντα γονίμου καὶ καρποφόρου ῥεύματος μὴ τοῦτο θαυμάζοι τοῦ φερομένου, τὸ φυτάλμιον καὶ εὔκαρπον τῶν ἡμερωτάτων καὶ βιωφελεστάτων καρπῶν, ἀλλʼ ἰδών που καὶ κροκόδειλον ἐννηχόμενον καὶ ἀσπίδα κατασυρομένην καὶ μύας, ἄγρια ζῷα καὶ μιαρά, ταύτας λέγοι τὰς αἰτίας τῆς μέμψεως καὶ τῆς τοῦ πράγματος ἀνάγκης· ἢ νὴ Δία τὴν γῆν ταύτην καὶ τὴν ἄρουραν ἀποβλέψας ἐμπεπλησμένην ἡμέρων καρπῶν καὶ βρίθουσαν ἀσταχύων, ἔπειτα ὑποβλέψας που τοῖς ληίοις τούτοις καὶ πού τινος αἴρας στάχυν ἰδὼν καὶ ὀροβάγχην, εἶτʼ ἀφεὶς ἐκεῖνα καρποῦσθαι καὶ ληίζεσθαι μέμφοιτο περὶ τούτων. τοιοῦτόν τι, καὶ λόγον ῥήτορος ὁρῶν ἐν δίκῃ τινὶ καὶ συνηγορίᾳ πληθύοντα καὶ φερόμενον ἐπὶ βοηθείᾳ κινδύνων, ἢ νὴ Δίʼ ἐλέγχῳ καὶ κατηγορίᾳ τολμημάτων καὶ ἀποδείξεων, ῥέοντα δὲ καὶ φερόμενον οὐχ ἁπλῶς οὐδὲ λιτῶς, ἀλλʼ ὁμοῦ πάθεσι πολλοῖς μᾶλλον δὲ παντοδαποῖς, εἰς ψυχὰς ὁμοίως πολλὰς καὶ ποικίλας καὶ διαφόρους τῶν ἀκροωμένων ἢ τῶν δικαζόντων, ἃς δεῖ τρέψαι καὶ μεταβαλεῖν ἢ νὴ Δία πραῧναι καὶ ἡμερῶσαι καὶ καταστῆσαι· εἶτα παρεὶς τοῦτο τοῦ πράγματος ὁρᾶν καὶ μετρεῖν τὸ φύλαιον καὶ ἀγώνισμα, παραρρήσεις ἐκλέγων, ἃς κατιὼν ὁ λόγος συγκατήνεγκε τῇ ῥύμῃ τῆς φορᾶς, συνεκπεσούσας καὶ παρολισθούσας τῷ λοιπῷ τοῦ λόγου. καὶ δημηγόρου τινὸς ὁρῶν.

[¶3] 4. But we are nothing put out of countenance, either by the beauteous gayety of the colors, or by the charmingness of the musical voices, or by the rare sagacity of the intellects, or by the cleanliness and neatness of diet, or by the rare discretion and prudence of these poor unfortunate animals; but for the sake of some little mouthful of flesh, we deprive a soul of the sun and light, and of that proportion of life and time it had been born into the world to enjoy. And then we fancy that the voices it utters and screams forth to us are nothing else but certain inarticulate sounds and noises, and not the several deprecations, entreaties, and pleadings of each of them, as it were saying thus to us: “I deprecate not thy necessity (if such there be), but thy wantonness. Kill me for thy feeding, but do not take me off for thy better feeding.” O horrible cruelty! It is truly an affecting sight to see the very table of rich people laid before them, who keep them cooks and caterers to furnish them with dead corpses for their daily fare; but it is yet more affecting to see it taken away, for the mammocks left are more than that which was eaten. These therefore were slain to no purpose. Others there are, who are so sparing of what is set before them that they will not suffer it to be cut or sliced; thus abstaining from them when dead, -while they would not spare them when alive.

> Greek: 4. ἀλλʼ οὐδὲν ἡμᾶς δυσωπεῖ, οὐ χρόας ἀνθηρὸν εἶδος, οὐ φωνῆς ἐμμελοῦς πιθανότης, οὐ πανουργία ψυχῆς, οὐ τὸ καθάριον ἐν διαίτῃ καὶ περιττὸν ἐν συνέσει τῶν ἀθλίων, ἀλλὰ σαρκιδίου μικροῦ χάριν ἀφαιρούμεθα ψυχῆς ἥλιον, φῶς, τὸν τοῦ βίου χρόνον, ἐφʼ ᾧ γέγονε καὶ πέφυκεν. εἶθʼ ἃς φθέγγεται καὶ διέτρισε φωνὰς ἀνάρθρους εἶναι δοκοῦμεν, οὐ παραιτήσεις καὶ δεήσεις καὶ δικαιολογίας ἑκάστου λέγοντος οὐ παραιτοῦμαί σου τὴν ἀνάγκην ἀλλὰ τὴν ὕβριν, ἵνα φάγῃς ἀπόκτεινον, ἵνα δʼ ἥδιον φάγῃς μὴ μʼ ἀναίρει ὢ τῆς ὠμότητος δεινὸν μέν ἐστι καὶ τιθεμένην ἰδεῖν τράπεζαν ἀνθρώπων πλουσίων νεκροκόσμοις χρωμένων μαγείροις καὶ ὀψοποιοῖς, δεινότερον δʼ ἀποκομιζομένην πλείονα γὰρ τὰ λειπόμενα τῶν βεβρωμένων ἐστίν οὐκοῦν ταῦτα μάτην ἀπέθανεν ἕτεροι δὲ φειδόμενοι τῶν παρατεθέντων οὐκ ἐῶσι τέμνειν οὐδὲ κατακόπτειν, παραιτούμενοι νεκρά, ζώντων δʼ οὐκ ἐφείσαντο.

[¶4] 5. Well then, we understand that that sort of men are used to say, that in eating of flesh they follow the conduct and direction of Nature. But that it is not natural to mankind to feed on flesh, we first of all demonstrate from the very shape and figure of the body. For a human body no ways resembles those that were born for ravenousness; it hath no hawk’s bill, no sharp talon, no roughness of teeth, no such strength of stomach or heat of digestion, as can be sufficient to convert or alter such heavy and fleshy fare. But even from hence, that is, from the smoothness of the tongue; and the slowness of the stomach to digest, Nature seems to disclaim all pretence to fleshy victuals. But if you will contend that yourself was born to an inclination to such food as you have now a mind to eat, do you then yourself kill what you would eat. But do it yourself, without the help of a chopping-knife, mallet or axe, — as wolves, bears, and lions do, who kill and eat at once. Rend an ox with thy teeth, worry a hog with thy mouth, tear a lamb or a hare in pieces, and fall on and eat it alive as they do. But if thou hadst rather stay until what thou eatest is become dead, and if thou art loath to force a soul out of its body, why then dost thou against Nature eat an animate thing? Nay, there is nobody that is willing to eat even a lifeless and a dead thing as it is; but they boil it, and roast it, and alter it by fire and medicines, as it were, changing and quenching the slaughtered gore with thousands of sweet sauces, that the palate being thereby deceived may admit of such uncouth fare. It was indeed a witty expression of a Lacedaemonian, who, having purchased a small fish in a certain inn, delivered it to his landlord to be dressed; and as he demanded cheese, and vinegar, and oil to make sauce, he replied, if I had had those, I would not have bought the fish. But we are grown so wanton in our bloody luxury, that we have bestowed upon flesh the name of meat (ὄψον), and then require another seasoning (ὄψον), to this same flesh, mixing oil, wine, honey, pickle, and vinegar, with Syrian and Arabian spices, as though we really meant to embalm it after its disease. Indeed when things are dissolved and made thus tender and soft, and are as it were turned into a sort of a carrionly corruption, it must needs be a great difficulty for concoction to master them, and when it hath mastered them, they must needs cause grievous oppressions and qualmy indigestions.

> Greek: 5. ἄλογον γὰρ εἶναί φαμεν ἐκείνους λέγειν τοὺς ἄνδρας ἀρχὴν ἔχειν τὴν φύσιν ὅτι γὰρ οὐκ ἔστιν ἀνθρώπῳ κατὰ φύσιν τὸ σαρκοφαγεῖν, πρῶτον μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν σωμάτων δηλοῦται τῆς· κατασκευῆς. οὐδενὶ γὰρ ἔοικε τὸ ἀνθρώπου σῶμα τῶν ὑ ἐπὶ σαρκοφαγίᾳ γεγονότων, οὐ γρυπότης χείλους, οὐκ ὀξύτης; ὄνυχος, οὐ τραχύτης ὀδόντος πρόσεστιν, οὐ κοιλίας εὐτονία καὶ πνεύματος θερμότης, τρέψαι καὶ κατεργάσασθαι δυνατὴ τὸ βαρὺ καὶ κρεῶδες ἀλλʼ αὐτόθεν ἡ φύσις τῇ λειότητι τῶν ὀδόντων καὶ τῇ σμικρότητι τοῦ στόματος καὶ τῇ μαλακότητι τῆς γλώσσης καὶ τῇ πρὸς πέψιν ἀμβλύτητι τοῦ πνεύματος ἐξόμνυται τὴν σαρκοφαγίαν. εἰ δὲ λέγεις πεφυκέναι σεαυτὸν ἐπὶ τοιαύτην ἐδωδήν, ὃ βούλει φαγεῖν πρῶτον αὐτὸς ἀπόκτεινον, ἀλλʼ αὐτὸς διὰ σεαυτοῦ, μὴ χρησάμενος κοπίδι μηδὲ τυμπάνῳ τινὶ μηδὲ πελέκει· ἀλλά, ὡς λύκοι καὶ ἄρκτοι καὶ λέοντες αὐτοὶ ὅσα ἐσθίουσι φονεύουσιν, ἄνελε δήγματι βοῦν ἢ στόματι σῦν, ἢ ἄρνα ἢ λαγωὸν διάρρηξον καὶ φάγε προσπεσὼν ἔτι ζῶντος, ὡς ἐκεῖνα. εἰ δʼ ἀναμένεις νεκρὸν γενέσθαι τὸ αἰσθόμενον καὶ δυσωπεῖ σε παροῦσα ψυχὴ ἀπολαύειν τῆς σαρκός, τί παρὰ φύσιν ἐσθίεις τὸ ἔμψυχον; ἀλλʼ οὐδʼ ἄψυχον ἄν τις φάγοι καὶ νεκρὸν οἷόν ἐστιν, ἀλλʼ ἕψουσιν ὀπτῶσι μεταβάλλουσι διὰ πυρὸς καὶ φαρμάκων, ἀλλοιοῦντες καὶ τρέποντες καὶ σβεννύοντες ἡδύσμασι μυρίοις τὸν φόνον, ἵνʼ ἡ γεῦσις ἐξαπατηθεῖσα προσδέξηται τἀλλότριον. καίτοι χάριέν γε τὸ τοῦ Λάκωνος, ὃς ἰχθύδιον ἐν πανδοκείῳ πριάμενος τῷ πανδοκεῖ σκευάσαι παρέδωκεν· αἰτοῦντος δʼ ἐκείνου τυρὸν καὶ ὄξος καὶ ἔλαιον, ἀλλʼ εἰ ταῦτʼ εἶχον εἶπεν οὐκ ἂν ἰχθὺν ἐπριάμην ἡμεῖς δʼ οὕτως ἐν τῷ μιαιφόνῳ τρυφῶμεν, ὥστʼ ὄψον τὸ κρέας προσαγορεύομεν, εἶτ̓ ὄψων πρὸς αὐτὸ τὸ κρέας δεόμεθα, ἀναμιγνύντες ἔλαιον οἶνον μέλι γάρον ὄντως ἡδύσμασι Συριακοῖς Ἀραβικοῖς, ὥσπερ ὄξος νεκρὸν ἐνταφιάζοντες. καὶ γὰρ οὕτως αὐτῶν διαλυθέντων καὶ μαλαχθέντων καὶ τρόπον τινὰ προσαπέντων ἔργον ἐστὶ τὴν πέψιν κρατῆσαι, καὶ διακρατηθείσης δὲ δεινὰς βαρύτητας ἐμποιεῖ καὶ νοσώδεις ἀπεψίας.

[¶5] 6. Diogenes ventured once to eat a raw pourcontrel, that he might disuse himself from meat dressed by fire; and as several priests and other people stood round him, he wrapped his head in his cassock, and so putting the fish to his mouth, he thus said unto them: It is for your sake, sirs, that I undergo this danger, and run this risk. A noble and gallant risk, by Jupiter! For far otherwise than as Pelopidas ventured his life for the liberty of the Thebans, and Harmodius and Aristogiton for that of the Athenians, did this philosopher encounter with a raw pourcontrel, to the end he might make human life more brutish. Moreover, these same flesh-eatings not only are preternatural to men’s bodies, but also by clogging and cloying them, they render their very minds and intellects gross. For it is well known to most, that wine and much flesh-eating make the body indeed strong and lusty, but the mind weak and feeble. And that I may not offend the wrestlers, I will make use of examples out of my own country. The Athenians are wont to call us Boeotians gross, senseless, and stupid fellows, for no other reason but our over-much eating; and Pindar calls us also hogs, for the same reason. Menander the comedian calls us “fellows with long jaws.” It is observed also that, according to the saying of Heraclitus, “the wisest soul is like a dry light.” Earthen jars, if you strike them, will sound; but if they be full, they perceive not the strokes that are given them. Copper vessels also that are thin communicate the sound round about them, unless some one stop and dull the ambient stroke with his fingers. Moreover, the eye, when seized with an over-great plenitude of humors, grows dim and feeble for its ordinary work. When we behold the sun through a humid air and a great quantity of gross and indigested vapors, we see it not clear and bright, but obscure and cloudy, and with glimmering beams. Just so in a muddy and clogged body, that is swagged down with heavy and unnatural nourishments; it must needs happen that the gayety and splendor of the mind be confused and dulled, and that it ramble and roll after little and scarce discernible objects, since it wants clearness and vigor for higher things.

> Greek: 6. Διογένης δʼ ὠμὸν φαγεῖν πολύπουν ἐτόλμησεν, ἵνα τὴν διὰ τοῦ πυρὸς ἐκβάλῃ κατεργασίαν τῶν κρεῶν· καὶ πολλῶν περιεστώτων αὐτὸν ἀνθρώπων, ἐγκαλυψάμενος τῷ τρίβωνι καὶ τῷ στόματι προσφέρων τὸ κρέας ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν φησὶν ἐγὼ παραβάλλομαι καὶ προκινδυνεύω καλόν, ὦ Ζεῦ, κίνδυνον οὐ γάρ, ὡς Πελοπίδας ὑπὲρ τῆς Θηβῶν ἐλευθερίας ἢ ὡς Ἁρμόδιος καὶ Ἀριστογείτων ὑπὲρ τῆς Ἀθηναίων, προεκινδύνευσεν ὁ φιλόσοφος ὠμῷ πολύποδι διαμαχόμενος, ἵνα τὸν βίον ἀποθηριώσῃ; οὐ τοίνυν μόνον αἱ κρεοφαγίαι τοῖς σώμασι γίγνονται παρὰ φύσιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰς ψυχὰς ὑπὸ πλησμονῆς καὶ κόρου παχύνουσιν· οἶνος γὰρ καὶ σαρκῶν ἐμφορήσιες σῶμα μὲν ἰσχυρὸν ποιέουσι καὶ ῥωμαλέον, ψυχὴν δὲ ἀσθενέα καὶ ἵνα μὴ τοῖς ἀθληταῖς ἀπεχθάνωμαι, συγγενέσι χρῶμαι παραδείγμασι· τοὺς γὰρ Βοιωτοὺς ἡμᾶς οἱ Ἀττικοὶ καὶ παχεῖς καὶ ἀναισθήτους καὶ ἠλιθίους, μάλιστα διὰ τὰς ἀδηφαγίας προσαγορεύουσιν· οὗτοι δʼ αὖ συ … καὶ ὁ Μένανδρος οἳ γνάθους ἔχουσι, καὶ ὁ Πίνδαρος γνῶναὶ τʼ ἔπειτα αὐγὴ ξηρὴ ψυχὴ σοφωτάτη κατὰ τὸν Ἡράκλειτον· οἱ κενοὶ πίθοι κρουσθέντες ἠχοῦσι, γενόμενοι δὲ πλήρεις οὐχ ὑπακούουσι ταῖς πληγαῖς· τῶν χαλκωμάτων τὰ λεπτὰ τοὺς ψόφους ἐν κύκλῳ διαδίδωσιν, ἄχρι οὗ ἐμφράξῃ καὶ τυφλώσῃ τις τῇ χειρὶ τῆς· πληγῆς περιφερομένης ἐπιλαμβανόμενος· ὀφθαλμὸς; ὑγροῦ πλεονάσαντος ἀναπλησθεὶς μαραυγεῖ καὶ ἀτονεῖ πρὸς τὸ οἰκεῖον ἔργον· τὸν ἥλιον διʼ ἀέρος ὑγροῦ καὶ ἀναθυμιάσεων πλήθους ἀπέπτων ἀθρήσαντες οὐ καθαρὸν οὐδὲ λαμπρὸν ἀλλὰ βύθιον καὶ ἀχλυώδη καὶ ὀλισθαίνοντα ταῖς αὐγαῖς ὁρῶμεν. οὕτω δὴ καὶ διὰ σώματος θολεροῦ καὶ διακόρου καὶ βαρυνομένου τροφαῖς ἀσυμφύλοις πᾶσα ἀνάγκη τὸ γάνωμα τῆς ψυχῆς καὶ τὸ φέγγος ἀμβλύτητα καὶ σύγχυσιν ἔχειν καὶ πλανᾶσθαι καὶ φέρεσθαι, πρὸς τὰ λεπτὰ καὶ δυσθεώρητα τέλη τῶν πραγμάτων αὐγὴν καὶ τόνον οὐκ ἐχούσης.

[¶6] 7. But to pass by these considerations, is not accustoming one’s self to mildness and a human temper of mind an admirable thing? For who could wrong or injure a man that is so sweetly and humanly disposed with respect to the ills of strangers that are not of his kind? I remember that three days ago, as I was discoursing, I made mention of a saying of Xenocrates, and how the Athenians gave judgment upon a certain person who had flayed a living ram. For my part I cannot think him a worse criminal that torments a poor creature while living, than a man that shall take away its life and murder it. But (as it seems) we are more sensible of what is done against custom than against Nature. There, however, I discoursed on these matters in a more popular style. But as for that grand and mysterious principle which (as Plato speaks) is incredible to base minds and to such as affect only mortal things, I as little care to move it in this discourse as a pilot doth a ship in a storm, or a comedian his machine while the scenes are moving; but perhaps it would not be amiss, by way of introduction and preface, to proclaim certain verses of Empedocles. … For in these, by way of allegory, he hints at men’s souls, as that they are tied to mortal bodies, to be punished for murders, eating of flesh and of one another, although this doctrine seems much ancienter than his time. For the fables that are storied and related about the discerption of Bacchus, and the attempts of the Titans upon him, and of their tasting of his slain body, and of their several punishments and fulminations afterwards, are but a representation of the regeneration. For what in us is unreasonable, disorderly, and boisterous, being not divine but demoniac, the ancients termed Titans, that is tormented and punished (from τίνω) …

> Greek: 7. χωρὶς δὲ τούτων ὁ πρὸς φιλανθρωπίαν ἐθισμὸς οὐ δοκεῖ θαυμαστὸν εἶναι; τίς γὰρ ἂν ἀδικήσειεν ἄνθρωπον, οὕτω πρὸς ἀλλότρια κακὰ καὶ ἀσύμφυλα διακείμενος καὶ πράως καὶ φιλανθρώπως; ἐμνήσθην δὲ τρίτην ἡμέραν διαλεγόμενος περὶ Ξενοκράτους, καὶ ὅτι Ἀθηναῖοι τῷ ζῶντα τὸν κριὸν ἐκδείραντι δίκην ἐπέθηκαν οὐκ ἔστι δέ, οἶμαι, χείρων ὁ ζῶντα βασανίζων τοῦ παραιρουμένου τὸ ζῆν καὶ φονεύοντος· ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον, ὡς ἔοικε, τῶν παρὰ συνήθειαν ἢ τῶν παρὰ φύσιν αἰσθανόμεθα. καὶ ταῦτα μὲν ἐκεῖ κοινότερον ἔλεγον· τὴν δὲ μεγάλην καὶ μυστηριώδη καὶ ἄπιστον ἀνδράσι δειλοῖς, φησιν ὁ Πλάτων, καὶ θνητὰ φρονοῦσιν ἀρχὴν τοῦ δόγματος; ὀκνῶ μὲν ἔτι τῷ λόγῳ κινεῖν, ὥσπερ ναῦν ἐν χειμῶνι ναύκληρος ἢ μηχανὴν αἴρει ποιητικὸς ἀνὴρ ἐν θεάτρῳ σκηνῆς περιφερομένης. οὐ χεῖρον δʼ ἴσως καὶ προανακρούσασθαι καὶ προαναφωνῆσαι τὰ τοῦ Ἐμπεδοκλέους· … ἀλληγορεῖ γὰρ ἐνταῦθα τὰς ψυχάς, ὅτι φόνων καὶ βρώσεως σαρκῶν καὶ ἀλληλοφαγίας δίκην τίνουσαι σώμασι θνητοῖς ἐνδέδενται. καίτοι δοκεῖ παλαιότερος οὗτος ὁ λόγος εἶναι· τὰ γὰρ δὴ περὶ τὸν Διόνυσον μεμυθευμένα πάθη τοῦ διαμελισμοῦ καὶ τὰ Τιτάνων ἐπʼ αὐτὸν τολμήματα, κολάσεις τε τούτων καὶ κεραυνώσεις γευσαμένων τοῦ φόνου, ᾐνιγμένος ἐστὶ μῦθος εἰς τὴν παλιγγενεσίαν· τὸ γὰρ ἐν ἡμῖν ἄλογον καὶ ἄτακτον καὶ βίαιον οὐ θεῖον ἀλλὰ δαιμονικὸν οἱ παλαιοὶ Τιτᾶνας ὠνόμασαν, καὶ τοῦτʼ ἔστι κολαζομένου καὶ δίκην διδόντος.

## 2. Speech II

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/2/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-on-the-eating-of-flesh/2/#p-N

[¶0] 1. Reason urges us with fresh ideas and fresh zeal to attack again our yesterday’s discourse on the eating of flesh. It is indeed difficult, as Cato remarked, to talk to bellies which have no ears. And the potion of familiarity has been drunk, like that of Circe “Commingling pains and pangs, tricks and tears;” nor is it easy to extract the hook of flesh-eating, entangled as it is and embedded in the love of pleasure. And, like the Egyptians e who extract the viscera of the dead and cut them open in view of the sun, then throw them away as being the cause of every single sin that the man had committed, it would be well for us to excise our own gluttony and lust to kill and become pure for the remainder of our lives, since it is not so much our belly that drives us to the pollution of slaughter; it is itself polluted by our incontinence. Yet if, for heaven’s sake, it is really impossible for us to be free from error because we are on such terms of familiarity with it, let us at least be ashamed of our ill doing and resort to it only in reason. We shall eat flesh, but from hunger, not as a luxury. We shall kill an animal, but in pity and sorrow, not degrading or torturing it - which is the current practice in many cases, some thrusting red-hot spits into the throats of swine so that by the plunging in of the iron the blood may be emulsified and, as it circulates through the body, may make the flesh tender and delicate. Others jump upon the udders of sows about to give birth and kick them so that, when they have blended together blood and milk and gore (Zeus the Purifier!) and the unborn young have at the same time been destroyed at the moment of birth, they may eat the most inflamed part of the creature. Still others sew up the eyes of cranes and swans, shut them up in darkness and fatten them, making the flesh appetizing with strange compounds and spicy mixtures.

> Greek: 1. επὶ τὰ ἕωλοι τῆς σαρκοφαγίοις προσφάτους ἡμᾶς ὁ λόγος παρακαλεῖ ταῖς τε διανοίαις καὶ ταῖς προθυμίαις γενέσθαι. χαλεπὸν μὲν γάρ, ὥσπερ ὁ Κάτων ἔφησε, λέγειν πρὸς γαστέρας ὦτα μὴ ἐχούσας· καὶ πέποται ὁ τῆς συνηθείας κυκεών, ὥσπερ ὁ τῆς Κίρκης ὠδίνας ὀδύνας κυκεὼν ἀπάτας τε γόους τε· καὶ τὸ ἄγκιστρον ἐκβάλλειν τῆς σαρκοφαγίας ὡς ἐμπεπηγμένον τῇ φιληδονίᾳ καὶ διαπεπαρμένον οὐ ῥᾴδιόν ἐστιν. ἐπεὶ καλῶς εἶχεν, ὥσπερ Αἰγύπτιοι τῶν νεκρῶν τὴν κοιλίαν ἐξελόντες καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον ἀνασχίζοντες ἐκβάλλουσιν ὡς αἰτίαν ἁπάντων ὧν ὁ ἄνθρωπος; ἥμαρτεν, οὕτως ἡμᾶς ἑαυτῶν τὴν γαστριμαργίαν καὶ μιαιφονίαν ἐκτεμόντας ἁγνεῦσαι τὸν λοιπὸν βίον ἐπεὶ ἥ γε γαστὴρ οὐ μιαιφόνον ἐστὶν ἀλλὰ μιαινόμενον ἀπὸ τῆς ἀκρασίας. οὐ μὴν ἀλλʼ εἰ καὶ ἀδύνατον νὴ Δία διὰ τὴν συνήθειαν τὸ ἀναμάρτητον, αἰσχυνόμενοι τῷ ἁμαρτάνοντι χρησόμεθα διὰ τὸν λόγον, ἐδόμεθα σάρκας, ἀλλὰ πεινῶντες οὐ τρυφῶντες· ἀναιρήσομεν ζῷον, ἀλλʼ οἰκτείροντες καὶ ἀλγοῦντες, οὐχ ὑβρίζοντες οὐδὲ βασανίζοντες· οἷα νῦν πολλὰ δρῶσιν οἱ μὲν εἰς σφαγὴν ὑῶν ὠθοῦντες ὀβελοὺς διαπύρους, ἵνα τῇ βαφῇ τοῦ σιδήρου περισβεννύμενον τὸ αἷμα καὶ διαχεόμενον τὴν σάρκα θρύψῃ καὶ μαλάξῃ· οἱ δʼ οὔθασι συῶν ἐπιτόκων ἐναλλόμενοι καὶ λακτίζοντες, ἵνʼ αἷμα καὶ γάλα καὶ λύθρον ἐμβρύων ὁμοῦ συμφθαρέντων ἐν ὠδῖσιν ἀναδεύσαντες, ὦ Ζεῦ καθάρσιε, φάγωσι τοῦ ζῴου τὸ μάλιστα φλεγμαῖνον ἄλλοι γεράνων ὄμματα καὶ κύκνων ἀπορράψαντες καὶ ἀποκλείσαντες ἐν σκότει πιαίνουσιν, ἀλλοκότοις μίγμασι καὶ καρυκείαις τισὶν αὐτῶν τὴν σάρκα ὀψοποιοῦντες.

[¶1] 2. From these practices it is perfectly evident that it is not for nourishment or need or necessity, but out of satiety and insolence and luxury that they have turned this lawless custom into a pleasure. Then, just as with women who are insatiable in seeking pleasure, their lust tries everything, goes astray, and explores the gamut of profligacy until at last it ends in unspeakable practices; so intemperance in eating passes beyond the necessary ends of nature and resorts to cruelty and lawlessness to give variety to appetite. For it is in their own company that organs of sense are infected and won over and become licentious when they do not keep to natural standards. Just so the art of hearing has fallen sick, corrupting musical taste. From this our luxury and debauchery conceives a desire for shameful caresses and effeminate titillations. These taught the sight not to take pleasure in warlike exercises or gesticulations or refined dances or statues and paintings, but to regard the slaughter and death of men, their wounds and combats, as the most precious sort of spectacle. Just so intemperate intercourse follows a lawless meal, inharmonious music follows a shameful debauch, barbarous spectacles follow shameless songs and sounds, insensitivity and cruelty toward human kind follow savage exhibitions in the theatre. It was for this reason that the godlike Lycurgus gave directions in certain rhetrae that the doors and roofs of houses should be fashioned by saw and axe alone and no other tool should be used-not of course because he had a quarrel with gimlets and adzes and other instruments for delicate work. It was because he knew that through such rough-hewn work you will not be introducing a gilded couch, nor will you be so rash as to bring silver tables and purple rugs and precious stones into a simple house. The corollary of such a house and couch and table and cup is a dinner which is unpretentious and a lunch which is truly democratic; but all manner of luxury and extravagance follow the lead of an evil way of life “As new-weaned foal beside his mother runs.”

> Greek: 2. ἐξ ὧν καὶ μάλιστα δῆλόν ἐστιν, ὡς οὐ διὰ τροφὴν οὐδὲ χρείαν οὐδʼ ἀναγκαίως ἀλλʼ ὑπὸ κόρου καὶ ὕβρεως καὶ πολυτελείας ἡδονὴν πεποίηνται τὴν ἀνομίαν· εἶθʼ ὥσπερ ἔρως ἐν γυναιξὶν κόρον ἡδονῆς οὐκ ἐχούσαις, ἀποπειρώμενος πάντα καὶ πλανώμενος ἀκολασταίνων ἐξέπεσεν εἰς τὰ ἄρρητα· οὕτως αἱ περὶ τὴν ἐδωδὴν ἀκρασίαι τὸ φυσικὸν παρελθοῦσαι καὶ ἀναγκαῖον τέλος ἐν ὠμότητι καὶ παρανομίᾳ ποικίλλουσι τὴν ὄρεξιν. συννοσεῖ γὰρ ἀλλήλοις τὰ αἰσθητήρια καὶ συναναπείθεται καὶ συνακολασταίνει μὴ κρατοῦντα τῶν φυσικῶν μέτρων. οὕτως ἀκοὴ νοσήσασα μουσικὴν διέφθειρεν, ἀφʼ ἧς τὸ θρυπτόμενον καὶ ἐκλυόμενον αἰσχρὰς ποθεῖ ψηλαφήσεις καὶ γυναικώδεις γαργαλισμούς. ταῦτα τὴν ὄψιν ἐδίδαξε μὴ πυρρίχαις χαίρειν μηδὲ χειρονομίαις μηδʼ ὀρχήμασι γλαφυροῖς μηδʼ ἀγάλμασι καὶ γραφαῖς, ἀλλὰ φόνον καὶ θάνατον ἀνθρώπων καὶ τραύματα καὶ μάχας θέαμα ποιεῖσθαι πολυτελέστατον. οὕτως ἕπονται παρανόμοις τραπέζαις συνουσίαι ἀκρατεῖς, ἀφροδισίοις αἰσχροῖς ἀκροάσεις ἄμουσοι, μέλεσι καὶ ἀκούσμασιν ἀναισχύντοις θέατρα ἔκφυλα, θεάμασιν ἀνημέροις ἀπάθεια πρὸς ἀνθρώπους καὶ ὠμότης. διὰ τοῦτο διέταττεν ὁ θεῖος· Λυκοῦργος ἐν ταῖς τρισὶ ῥήτραις τὸ ἀπὸ πρίονος καὶ πελέκεως γίγνεσθαι τὰ θυρώματα τῶν οἰκιῶν καὶ τὰς ἐρέψεις, ἄλλο δʼ ὄργανον μηδὲν προσφέρεσθαι, οὐ πολεμῶν δήπου τερέτροις καὶ σκεπάρνοις καὶ ὅσα λεπτουργεῖν πέφυκεν ἀλλʼ εἰδὼς ὅτι διὰ τοιούτων ἔργων οὐκ εἰσοίσεις κλινίδιον ἐπίχρυσον οὐδὲ τολμήσεις εἰς οἰκίαν λιτὴν ἀργυρᾶς εἰσενεγκεῖν τραπέζας καὶ δάπιδας ἁλουργοὺς καὶ λίθους πολυτελεῖς· ἀλλʼ ἕπεται οἰκίᾳ καὶ κλίνῃ καὶ τραπέζῃ καὶ κύλικι τοιαύτῃ δεῖπνον ἀφελὲς καὶ ἄριστον δημοτικόν, ἀρχῇ δὲ μοχθηρᾶς διαίτης ἄθηλος ἵππῳ πῶλος ὣς ἅμα τρέχει πᾶσα τρυφὴ καὶ πολυτέλεια.

[¶2] 3. For what sort of dinner is not costly for which a living creature loses its life? Do we hold a life cheap? I do not yet go so far as to say that it may well be the life of your mother or father or some friend or child, as Empedocles declared. Yet it does, at least, possess some perception, hearing, seeing, imagination, intelligence, which last every creature receives from Nature to enable it to acquire what is proper for it and to evade what is not. Do but consider which are the philosophers who serve the better to humanize us: those who bid us eat our children and friends and fathers and wives after their death, or Pythagoras and Empedocles who try to accustom us to act justly toward other creatures also? You ridicule a man who abstains from eating mutton. But are we, they will say, to refrain from laughter when we see you slicing off portions from a dead father or mother and sending them to absent friends and inviting those who are at hand, heaping their plates with flesh? But as it is, perhaps we commit a sin when we touch these books of theirs without cleansing our hands and faces, our feet and ears - unless, by Heaven, it is a purification of those members to speak on such a subject as this, “washing,” as Plato says, “the brine from one’s ears with the fresh water of discourse.” If one should compare these two sets of books and doctrines, the former may serve as philosophy for the Scyths and Sogdians and the Black Cloaks, whose story as told by Herodotus gains no credit; but the precepts of Pythagoras and Empedocles were the laws for the ancient Greeks, along with their diet of wheat … [Because there is no question of justice between us and the irrational animals.]

> Greek: 3. ποῖον οὖν οὐ πολυτελὲς δεῖπνον, εἰς ὃ οὐ θανατοῦταί τι ἔμψυχον; μικρὸν ἀνάλωμα ἡγούμεθα ψυχήν; οὔπω λέγω τάχα μητρὸς ἢ πατρὸς ἢ φίλου τινὸς ἢ παιδός, ὡς ἔλεγεν Ἐμπεδοκλῆς· ἀλλʼ αἰσθήσεώς γε μετέχουσαν, ὄψεως ἀκοῆς, φαντασίας συνέσεως, ἣν ἐπὶ κτήσει τοῦ οἰκείου καὶ φυγῇ τάλλοτρίου παρὰ τῆς φύσεως ἕκαστον εἴληχε. σκόπει δʼ ἡμᾶς πότεροι βέλτιον ἐξημεροῦσι τῶν φιλοσόφων, οἱ καὶ τέκνα καὶ φίλους καὶ πατέρας καὶ γυναῖκας ἐσθίειν κελεύοντες ὡς ἀποθανόντας, ἢ Πυθαγόρας καὶ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἐθίζοντες εἶναι καὶ πρὸς· τὰ ἄλλα μέρη δικαίους. σὺ μὲν καταγελᾷς τοῦ τὸ πρόβατον μὴ ἐσθίοντος· ἀλλʼ ἡμεῖς γε, φήσουσι, θεασάμενοι τοῦ πατρὸς τεθνηκότος ἢ τῆς μητρὸς ἀποτεμόντα μερίδας καὶ τῶν φίλων ἀποπεμπόμενον τοῖς μὴ παροῦσι, τοὺς δὲ παρόντας καλοῦντα καὶ παρατιθέντα τῶν σαρκῶν ἀφειδῶς, μή τι γελάσωμεν; ἀλλὰ καὶ νῦν ἴσως ἁμαρτάνομεν, ὅταν ἁψώμεθα τῶν βιβλίων τούτων, μὴ καθαιρόμενοι χεῖρας καὶ ὄψεις καὶ πόδας καὶ ἀκοάς, εἰ μὴ νὴ Δία ἐκείνων καθαρμὸς ἐστι τὸ περὶ τούτων διαλέγεσθαι ποτίμῳ λόγῳ ὥς φησιν ὁ Πλάτων ἁλμυρὰν ἀκοὴν ἀποκλυζομένους. εἰ δὲ θείη τις τὰ βιβλία παρʼ ἄλληλα καὶ τοὺς λόγους, ἐκεῖνα μὲν Σκύθαις φιλοσοφεῖσθαι καὶ Σογδιανοῖς καὶ Μελαγχλαίνοις, περὶ ὧν Ἡρόδοτος ἱστορῶν ἀπιστεῖται τὰ δὲ Πυθαγόρου καὶ Ἐμπεδοκλέους δόγματα νόμοι τῶν παλαιῶν ἦσαν Ἑλλήνων καὶ αἱ ἄπυροι δίαιται. … ὅτι πρὸς τὰ ἄλογα ζῷα δίκαιον ἡμῖν οὐδὲν ἔστι.

[¶3] 4. Who, then, were they who later decreed this?
The first to forge the highway’s murderous sword,
And first to eat the flesh of ploughing ox.
This is the way, you may be sure, in which tyrants begin their course of bloody slaughters. Just as, for instance, at Athens they put to death initially the worst of the sycophants, and likewise in the second and third instances; but next, having become accustomed to bloodshed they allowed Niceratus, the son of Nicias, to be killed and the general Theramenes and the philosopher Polemarchus. Just so, at the beginning it was some wild and harmful animal that was eaten, then a bird or fish that had its flesh torn. And so when our murderous instincts had tasted blood and grew practised on wild animals, they advanced to the labouring ox and the well-behaved sheep and the house-warding cock; thus, little by little giving a hard edge to our insatiable appetite, we have advanced to wars and the slaughter and murder of human beings. Yet if someone once demonstrates that souls in their rebirths make use of common bodies and that what is now rational reverts to the irrational, and again what is now wild becomes tame, and that Nature changes everything and assigns new dwellings “Clothing souls with unfamiliar coat of flesh;” will not this deter the unruly element in those who have adopted the doctrine from implanting disease and indigestion in our bodies and perverting our souls to an ever more cruel lawlessness, as soon as we are broken of the habit of not entertaining a guest or celebrating a marriage or consorting with our friends without bloodshed and murder?

> Greek: 4. τίνες οὖν ὕστερον τοῦτʼ ἔγνωσαν;
οἳ πρῶτοι κακοεργὸν ἐχαλκεύσαντο μάχαιραν
εἰνοδίην, πρῶτοι δὲ βοῶν ἐπάσαντʼ ἀροτήρων.
οὕτω τοι καὶ οἱ τυραννοῦντες ἄρχουσι μιαιφονίας. ὥσπερ γὰρ τὸ πρῶτον ἀπέκτειναν Ἀθήνησι τὸν κάκιστον τῶν συκοφαντῶν, ὃς ἐπιτήδειος προσηγορεύθη, καὶ δεύτερον ὁμοίως, καὶ τρίτον· εἶτʼ ἐκ τούτου συνήθεις γενόμενοι Νικήρατον περιεώρων ἀπολλύμενον τὸν Νικίου καὶ Θηραμένη τὸν στρατηγὸν καὶ Πολέμαρχον τὸν φιλόσοφον· οὕτω τὸ πρῶτον ἄγριόν τι ζῷον ἐβρώθη καὶ κακοῦργον, εἶτʼ ὄρνις τις ἢ ἰχθὺς εἵλκυστο καὶ γευσάμενον οὕτω καὶ προμελετῆσαν ἐν ἐκείνοις τὸ φονικὸν ἐπὶ βοῦν ἐργάτην ἦλθε καὶ τὸ κόσμιον πρόβατον καὶ τὸν οἰκουρὸν ἀλεκτρυόνα καὶ κατὰ μικρὸν οὕτω τὴν ἀπληστίαν στομώσαντες ἐπὶ σφαγὰς ἀνθρώπων καὶ πολέμους καὶ φόνους προῆλθον. ἀλλʼ ἐὰν μὴ προσαποδείξῃ τις, ὅτι χρῶνται κοινοῖς αἱ ψυχαὶ σώμασιν ἐν ταῖς παλιγγενεσίαις καὶ τὸ νῦν λογικὸν αὖθις γίγνεται ἄλογον καὶ πάλιν ἥμερον τὸ νῦν ἄγριον, ἀλλάσσει δʼ ἡ φύσις ἅπαντα καὶ μετοικίζει σαρκῶν ἀλλογνῶτι περιστέλλουσα χιτῶνι ταῦτʼ οὐκ ἀποτρέπει τῶν ἀνῃρημένων τὸ ἀκόλαστον τὸ καὶ σώματι νόσους καὶ βαρύτητας ἐμποιεῖν καὶ ψυχὴν ἐπὶ πόλεμον ἀνομωτέρων τρεπομένην διαφθείρειν ὅταν ἐθισθῶμεν μὴ αἵματος ἄνευ καὶ φόνου μὴ ξένον ἑστιᾶν, μὴ γάμον ἑορτάζειν, μὴ φίλοις συγγίγνεσθαι.

[¶4] 5. Yet even if the argument of the migration of souls from body to body is not demonstrated to the point of complete belief, there is enough doubt to make us quite cautious and fearful. It is as though in a clash of armies by night you had drawn your sword and were rushing at a man whose fallen body was hidden by his armour and should hear someone remarking that he wasn’t quite sure, but that he thought and believed that the prostrate figure was that of your son or brother or father or tent-mate - which would be the better course: to approve a false suspicion and spare your enemy as a friend, or to disregard an uncertain authority and kill your friend as a foe? The latter course you will declare to be shocking. Consider also Merope in the play raising her axe against her son himself because she believes him to be that son’s murderer and saying “This blow I give you is more costly yet -” what a stir she rouses in the theatre as she brings them to their feet in terror lest she wound the youth before the old man can stop her! Now suppose one old man stood beside her saying, “Hit him! He’s your enemy,” and another who said, “Don’t strike! He is your son”: which would be the greater misdeed, to omit the punishment of an enemy because of the son, or to slay a child under the impulse of anger against an enemy? In a ease, then, where it is not hate or anger or self-defence or fear for ourselves that induces us to murder, but the motive of pleasure, and the victim stands there under our power with its head bent back and one of our philosophers says, “Kill it! It’s only a brute beast”; but the other says, “Stop! What if the soul of some relative or friend has found its way into this body?” - Good God! Of course the risk is equal or much the same in the two cases - if I refuse to eat flesh, or if I, disbelieving, kill my child or some other relative!

> Greek: 5. καίτοι τῆς λεγομένης ταῖς ψυχαῖς εἰς σώματα παλιμμεταβολῆς εἰ μὴ πίστεως ἄξιον τὸ ἀποδεικνύμενον, ἀλλʼ εὐλαβείας γε μεγάλης καὶ δέους τὸ ἀμφίβολον. οἷον εἴ τις ἐν νυκτομαχίαις στρατοπέδων ἀνδρὶ πεπτωκότι καὶ τὸ σῶμα κρυπτομένῳ τοῖς ὅπλοις ἐπιφέρων ξίφος ἀκούσειέ τινος λέγοντος οὐ πάνυ μὲν εἰδέναι βεβαίως, οἴεσθαι δὲ καὶ δοκεῖν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ τὸν κείμενον ἢ ἀδελφὸν ἢ πατέρα ἢ σύσκηνον εἶναι τί βέλτιον, ὑπονοίᾳ προσθέμενον οὐκ ἀληθεῖ προέσθαι τὸν ἐχθρὸν ὡς φίλον, ἢ καταφρονήσαντα τοῦ μὴ βεβαίου πρὸς πίστιν ἀνελεῖν τὸν οἰκεῖον ὡς πολέμιον; ἐκεῖνο δεινὸν φήσετε πάντες. σκόπει δὲ καὶ τὴν ἐν τῇ τραγῳδίᾳ Μερόπην ἐπὶ τὸν υἱὸν αὐτὸν ὡς φονέα τοῦ υἱοῦ πέλεκυν ἀραμένην καὶ λέγουσαν
ὠνητέραν δὴ τήνδʼ ἐγὼ δίδωμί σοι
πληγήν·
ὅσον ἐν τῷ θεάτρῳ κίνημα ποιεῖ, συνεξορθιάζουσα φόβῳ, καὶ δέος μὴ φθάσῃ τὸν ἐπιλαμβανόμενον γέροντα καὶ τρώσῃ τὸ μειράκιον. εἰ δʼ ἕτερος γέρων παρεστήκοι λέγων παῖσον, πολέμιός ἐστιν· ἕτερος δὲ μὴ παίσῃς, υἱός ἐστι· πότερον ἀδίκημα μεῖζον, ἐχθροῦ κόλασιν ἐκλιπεῖν διὰ τὸν υἱὸν ἢ τεκνοκτονίᾳ περιπεσεῖν ὑπὸ τῆς πρὸς τὸν ἐχθρὸν ὀργῆς; ὁπότε τοίνυν οὐ μῖσός ἐστιν οὐδὲ θυμὸς ὁ πρὸς τὸν φόνον ἐξάγων ἡμᾶς οὐδʼ ἄμυνά τις οὐδὲ φόβος ὑπὲρ αὑτῶν, ἀλλʼ εἰς ἡδονῆς μέρος ἕστηκεν ἱερεῖον ἀνακεκλασμένῳ τραχήλῳ ὑποκείμενον, εἶτα λέγει τῶν φιλοσόφων ὁ μὲν κατάκοψον, ἄλογόν ἐστι τὸ ζῷον. ὁ δὲ ἀνάσχου· τί γὰρ εἰ συγγενοῦς ἢ θεοῦ τινος ἐνταῦθα ψυχὴ κεχώρηκεν; ἴσος γε, ὦ θεοί, καὶ ὅμοιος ὁ κίνδυνος ἕχει, ἂν ἀπειθῶ φαγεῖν κρέας, ἂν ἀπιστῶ φονεῦσαι τέκνον ἢ ἕτερον οἰκεῖον;

[¶5] 6. There remains yet another contention with the Stoics about flesh-eating, and this is not “equal,” either. For what is this great “tension” on the belly and the kitchen? Why, when they count pleasure effeminate and denounce it as being neither a good nor an “advanced principle” nor “commensurate with Nature,” are they so concerned with these pleasures? It would certainly be consistent for them, since they banish perfume and cakes from their banquets, to be more squeamish about blood and flesh. But as it is, confining as it were their philosophy to their ledgers, they economize on their dinners in trivial and needless details while they do not deprecate this inhuman and murderous item of expense. “Of course,” they say, “we human beings have no compact of justice with irrational animals.” Nor, one might reply, have you with perfume or exotic sweetmeats either. Refrain from animals also, if you are expelling the useless and unnecessary element in pleasure from all its lurking-places.

> Greek: 6. οὐκ ἴσος δʼ ἔτι καὶ οὗτος ὁ ἀγὼν τοῖς Στωικοῖς ὑπὲρ τῆς σαρκοφαγίας. τίς γὰρ ὁ πολὺς τόνος· εἰς τὴν γαστέρα καὶ τὰ ὀπτανεῖα; τί τὴν ἡδονὴν θηλύνοντες καὶ διαβάλλοντες ὡς οὔτʼ ἀγαθὸν οὔτε προηγούμενον οὔτʼ οἰκεῖον οὕτω περὶ τὰ τῶν ἡδονῶν ἐσπουδάκασι; καὶ μὴν ἀκόλουθον ἦν αὐτοῖς, εἰ μύρον ἐξελαύνουσι καὶ πέμμα τῶν συμποσίων, μᾶλλον αἷμα καὶ σάρκα δυσχεραίνειν. νῦν δʼ ὥσπερ εἰς τὰς ἐφημερίδας φιλοσοφοῦντες δαπάνην ἀφαιροῦσι τῶν δείπνων ἐν τοῖς ἀχρήστοις καὶ περιττοῖς, τὸ δʼ ἀνήμερον τῆς πολυτελείας καὶ φονικὸν οὐ παραιτοῦνται. ναί, φησίν, οὐδὲν γὰρ ἡμῖν πρὸς τὰ ἄλογα δίκαιον ἔστιν. οὐδὲ γὰρ πρὸς τὸ μύρον, φαίη τις ἄν, οὐδὲ πρὸς τὰ ξενικὰ τῶν ἡδυσμάτων ἀλλὰ καὶ τούτων ἀποτρέπεσθε, τὸ μὴ χρήσιμον μηδʼ ἀναγκαῖον ἐν ἡδονῇ πανταχόθεν ἐξελαύνοντες.

[¶6] 7. Let us, however, now examine the point whether we really have no compact of justice with animals; and let us do so in no artificial or sophistical manner, but fixing our attention on our own emotions and conversing like human beings with ourselves and weighing …

> Greek: 7. οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῦτʼ ἤδη σκεψώμεθα, τὸ μηδὲν εἶναι πρὸς τὰ ζῷα δίκαιον ἡμῖν, μηδὲ τεχνικῶς μηδὲ σοφιστικῶς, ἀλλὰ τοῖς πάθεσιν ἐμβλέψαντες τοῖς ἑαυτῶν καὶ πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς ἀνθρωπικῶς λαλήσαντες καὶ ἀνακρίναντες.