---
title: "On the Principle of Cold · De primo frigido"
author: "Plutarch"
translator: "F. Fetherston, rev. William W. Goodwin"
languages: [grc, en]
shelf: "Philosophy"
section: 2 of 2
url: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-principle-of-cold/2/
cite: "Plutarch, tr. F. Fetherston, rev. William W. Goodwin, On the Principle of Cold · De primo frigido, section 2. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-principle-of-cold/2/"
---

# On the Principle of Cold · De primo frigido

*Plutarch, tr. F. Fetherston, rev. William W. Goodwin*

Is cold something real, and which element is coldest?

> Greek: ed. Grēgorios N. Vernardakēs, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-greekLit, tlg0007.tlg127, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: F. Fetherston, rev. William W. Goodwin, from the Perseus Digital Library (tlg0007.tlg127.perseus-eng4). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 2. Sections 15–23

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-principle-of-cold/2/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-principle-of-cold/2/#p-N

[¶0] 15. Now that great rivers never freeze downwards is but consentaneous to reason. For those parts which are frozen above transmit no exhalation outward; for this, being penned up within and forced downward, affords heat to the moisture at the bottom. A clear demonstration of which is this, that when the ice is dissolved, you may observe a steam arising out of the water upwards in a very great quantity. And therefore the bodies of living creatures are warmest within in the winter, for that the heat is driven inward by the ambient cold. Now those upward exhalations and ascensions of the vapors deprive the waters not only of their heat but of their coolness. And therefore they that vehemently desire their drink to be cold never move the snow nor the moisture that is pressed out of it; for motion would deprive them both of the virtue which is required from them. Now that this virtue is not the virtue of air, but of water, a man may collect by reasoning thus from the beginning. First, it is not probable that the air, which is next the sky, and touching the fiery substance is also touched by it, should be endued with a contrary virtue; for otherwise it is not possible that the extremities of the one should touch and be contiguous to the extremities of the other. Nor is it agreeable to reason that Nature should constitute that which is corrupted next in order to that which corrupts, as if she were not the author of community and harmony but of combat and contention. For she makes use of contrary things in sustaining the universe; but she does not use them pure and unmixed, nor so that they will be in hostility; but she uses such as have alternately a certain position and order which is not destructive, but which inclines them to communicate and co-operate one with another, and to effect a harmony between the opposing qualities. And this is the nature of the air, being expanded under the fire above the water, contingent and adhering to both, neither hot in itself nor cold, but containing an intermixture and communion of hot and cold, harmlessly intermixed in herself; and lightly cherishing the contrary extremities.

> Greek: 15. τὰ δὲ κάτω τῶν μεγάλων ποταμῶν οὐ πήγνυται κατὰ λόγον. τὰ γὰρ ἄνω παγέντα τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν οὐ διίησιν, ἀλλʼ ἐγκαθειργνυμένη καὶ ἀποστρεφομένη θερμότητα παρέχει τοῖς διὰ βάθους ὑγροῖς· ἀπόδειξις δὲ τούτου τὸ λυομένου τοῦ πάγου πάλιν ἀτμὸν πολὺν ἐκ τῶν ὑγρῶν ἀναφέρεσθαι; διὸ καὶ τὰ τῶν ζῴων σώματα χειμῶνός ἐστι θερμότερα τῷ συνέχειν τὸ θερμὸν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς ὑπὸ τῆς ἔξωθεν ψυχρότητος εἴσω συνελαυνόμενον. αἱ δʼ ἀναρύσεις καὶ μετεωρίσεις οὐ μόνον τὸ θερμὸν ἐξαιροῦσι τῶν ὑδάτων ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν· ὅθεν ἥκιστα τὰς χιόνας καὶ τὸ συνθλιβόμενον ὑγρὸν ἀπʼ αὐτῶν οἱ σφόδρα ψυχροῦ δεόμενοι κινοῦσιν· ἐκστατικὸν γὰρ ἀμφοῖν ἡ κίνησις. ὅτι δʼ οὐκ ἀέρος ἐστὶν ἀλλʼ ὕδατος ἡ τοιαύτη δύναμις, οὕτως ἄν τις ἐξ ὑπαρχῆς ἐπέλθοι. πρῶτον μὲν οὐκ εἰκός ἐστιν ἀέρα, τῷ αἰθέρι γειτνιῶντα καὶ ψαύοντα τῆς περιφορᾶς καὶ ψαυόμενον οὐσίας πυρώδους, τὴν ἐναντίαν ἔχειν δύναμιν οὔτε γὰρ ἄλλως δυνατὸν ἁπτόμενα καὶ συνεχῆ τοῖς πέρασιν ὄντα δύο σώματα μὴ πάσχειν ὑπʼ ἀλλήλων, εἰ δὲ πάσχειν, μὴ ἀναπίμπλασθαι τῆς τοῦ κρείττονος δυνάμεως τὸ ἧττον οὔτε τὴν φύσιν ἔχει λόγον ἐφεξῆς τῷ φθείροντι τάξαι τὸ φθειρόμενον, ὥσπερ οὐ κοινωνίας οὖσαν οὐδʼ ἁρμονίας ἀλλὰ πολέμου καὶ μάχης δημιουργόν. χρῆται μὲν γὰρ ἐναντίοις εἰς τὰ ὅλα πράγμασι χρῆται δʼ οὐκ ἀκράτοις οὐδʼ ἀντιτύποις, ἀλλʼ ἐναλλάξ τινα θέσιν καὶ τάξιν οὐκ ἀναιρετικὴν ἀλλὰ κοινωνικὴν διʼ ἑτέρων καὶ συνεργὸν ἐν μέσῳ παρεμπλεκομένην ἔχουσι καὶ ταύτην εἴληφεν ὁ ἀήρ, ὑποκεχυμένος τῷ πυρὶ πρὸ τοῦ ὕδατος καὶ διαδιδοὺς; ἐπʼ ἀμφότερα καὶ συνάγων, οὔτε θερμὸς ὢν αὐτὸς οὔτε ψυχρὸς ἀλλὰ ψυχροῦ καὶ θερμοῦ μετακέρασμα καὶ κοινώνημα; μιγνυμένων ἐν αὐτῷ μῖξιν ἀβλαβῆ καὶ μαλακῶς ἀνιεῖσαν καὶ δεχομένην τὰς ἐναντίας ἀκρότητας.

[¶1] 16. Therefore the air is of an equal temper in all places, but winter is not in all places alike nor equally cold; but some parts of the habitable world are cold and moist, others hot and dry, not by chance, but because there is but one substance of heat and dryness. For the greatest part of Africa is hot and without water. But they that have travelled Scythia, Thrace, and the Pontic regions report them to be full of vast lakes, and large and deep rivers. And as for those regions lying between, those parts that join upon lakes and marshes are most cold by reason of the exhalations from the water. Posidouius therefore, affirming the freshness and moistness of the air of marshes to be the cause of its cold, has no way disturbed the probability of our argument, but rather added to the strength of it; for the air would not always be the colder the fresher it is, unless cold has its original from moisture. And therefore Homer much more truly shows us the fountain of cold, when he says,
Chill from the river blows the wind
Before the coming morn.
Then again it many times happens that our sense deceives us. So that when we feel cold garments or cold wool, we believe we feel them to be moist, by reason of the substance which is common to both, and of their natures which are coherent and familiar one with another. But in climates where the cold is extreme, it oftentimes breaks and cracks both pots and vessels, whether made of earth or brass,—none empty, but all full, the cold giving force and might to the liquor within,—which made Theophrastus say, that the air breaks those vessels, making use of the cold as of a hammer; whether more eloquently or more truly spoken, I leave you to judge. For then vessels full of pitch or milk should be more subject to be broken by the air. But water seems to be cold of itself, and that primitively too; for in respect of the coldness of it, it is opposite to the heat of the fire; as to drought in respect of its moisture, and to ponderosity in regard of its lightness. Lastly, fire is altogether of a dissipating and dividing nature; water, of a nature to fasten and contain, holding and joining together by virtue of its moisture. Which was the reason why Empedocles called fire “a pernicious contention,” but water a “tenacious friendship.” For the nourishment of fire is that which changes into fire, and it changes that which is as it were of kin and familiar to it. What is contrary to it, as water, cannot be changed by it, or at least only with great difficulty. True it is, that as for itself, as I may so say, it cannot be burned; but as for green wood and wet straw, it overcomes them with much struggling, while the heat and cold contending together, by reason of their moisture and their natural antipathy, produce only a dull flame, clouded with smoke, that makes little progress upon the materials.

> Greek: 16. ἔπειτα πανταχοῦ μέν ἐστιν ἀὴρ ἴσος, οὐ πανταχοῦ δὲ χειμὼν ὅμοιος οὐδὲ ψῦχος. ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν τὰ μέρη ψυχρὰ καὶ κάθυγρα, ταῦτα δὲ ξηρὰ καὶ θερμὰ τῆς οἰκουμένης οὐ κατὰ τύχην, ἀλλὰ τῷ μίαν οὐσίαν ψυχρότητος καὶ ὑγρότητος εἶναι. Λιβύης μὲν γὰρ ἔνθερμος πολλὴ καὶ ἄνυδρος, Σκυθίαν δὲ καὶ Θρᾴκην καὶ Πόντον οἱ πεπλανημένοι λίμνας τε μεγάλας ἔχειν καὶ ποταμοῖς διαρρεῖσθαι βαθέσι καὶ πολλοῖς ἱστοροῦσιν αὐτῶν τε τῶν ἐν μέσῳ τόπων τὰ παράλιμνα καὶ ἑλώδη ψῦχος ἔχει μάλιστα διὰ τὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ὑγρῶν ἀναθυμιάσεις Ποσειδώνιος δὲ τῆς ψυχρότητος αἰτίαν εἰπὼν τὸ πρόσφατον εἶναι τὸν ἕλειον ἀέρα καὶ νοτερὸν οὐκ ἔλυσε τὸ πιθανόν, ἀλλὰ πιθανώτερον ἐποίησεν οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἐφαίνετο τοῦ ἀέρος ὁ πρόσφατος ἀεὶ ψυχρότερος, εἰ μὴ τὸ ψυχρὸν ἐν τοῖς. ὑγροῖς τὴν γένεσιν εἶχε. βέλτιον οὖν Ὅμηρος εἰπὼν
αὔρη δʼ ἐκ ποταμοῦ ψυχρὴ πνέει ἠῶθι πρό,
τὴν πηγὴν τῆς ψυχρότητος ἔδειξεν. ἔτι τοίνυν ἡ μὲν αἴσθησις πολλάκις ἡμᾶς ἐξαπατᾷ, ὅταν ἱματίων ἢ ἐρίων ψυχρῶν θιγγάνωμεν, οἰομένους ὑγρῶν θιγγάνειν διὰ τὸ κοινὴν ἀμφοτέροις οὐσίαν ὑπάρχειν καὶ τὰς φύσεις σύνεγγυς εἶναι καὶ οἰκείας. ἐν δὲ τοῖς δυσχειμέροις κλίμασι πολλὰ ῥηγνύει τὸ ψῦχος ἀγγεῖα καὶ χαλκᾶ καὶ κεραμεᾶ· κενὸν δʼ οὐδὲν ἀλλὰ πάντα πλήρη, βιαζομένου τῇ ψυχρότητι τοῦ ὕδατος. καίτοι φησὶ Θεόφραστος τὸν ἀέρα ῥηγνύειν τὰ ἀγγεῖα τῷ ὑγρῷ καθάπερ ἥλῳ χρώμενον· ὅρα δὲ μὴ τοῦτο κομψῶς μᾶλλον ἢ ἀληθῶς εἰρημένον ἐστίν· ἔδει γὰρ τὰ πίττης γέμοντα μᾶλλον ῥήγνυσθαι ὑπὸ τοῦ ἀέρος καὶ τὰ γάλακτος.. ἀλλʼ ἔοικε τὸ ὕδωρ ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ ψυχρὸν εἶναι καὶ πρώτως· ἀντίκειται γὰρ τῇ ψυχρότητι πρὸς τὴν θερμότητα τοῦ πυρός, ὥσπερ τῇ ὑγρότητι πρὸς τὴν ξηρότητα καὶ τῇ βαρύτητι πρὸς τὴν κουφότητα. καὶ ὅλως τὸ μὲν πῦρ διαστατικόν ἐστι· καὶ διαιρετικόν, τὸ δʼ ὕδωρ κολλητικὸν καὶ σχετικόν, τῇ ὑγρότητι συνέχον καὶ πῆττον· ᾗ καὶ παρέσχεν Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ὑπόνοιαν, ὡς τὸ μὲν πῦρ νεῖκος οὐλόμενον σχεδύνην δὲ φιλότητα τὸ ὑγρὸν ἑκάστοτε προσαγορεύων ἐπεὶ, τροφὴ μὲν· πυρὸς τὸ μεταβάλλον εἰς πῦρ, μεταβάλλει δὲ τὸ συγγενὲς; καὶ οἰκεῖον, τὸ δʼ ἐναντίον δυσμετάβλητον, ὡς τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ αὐτὸ μὲν ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν ἄκαυστόν ἐστιν, ὕλην δὲ καὶ πόαν νοτερὰν καὶ ξύλα βεβρεγμένα δυσκαῆ παρέχει, καὶ φλόγα ζοφερὰν καὶ ἀμβλεῖαν ὑπὸ χλωρότητος ἀναδίδωσι τῷ ψυχρῷ μαχόμενον πρὸς τὸ θερμὸν ὡς φύσει πολέμιον.

[¶2] 17. Compare these arguments with theirs, and consider them well. But Chrysippus, believing the air to be the primitive cold, because it is dark, makes mention only of those that say the water lies at farther distance from the sky than the air. And being desirous to give some answer to them, “If so,” says he, “we may as well affirm the earth to be primitively cold, because it is the farthest distant from the sky;” rejecting that, as altogether improbable and absurd. But for my part, I am of opinion that there might be many probable and rational arguments brought for the earth; beginning with that which Chrysippus chiefly makes use of for the air. What is this? First, that it is dark. For if he, assuming these two contrarieties of faculties, believes that the one follows the other of necessity, then there might be produced a thousand oppositions and repugnances of the earth in respect of the sky, which would of necessity follow upon this which we have mentioned. For it is not to be opposed only as heavy to light, or as that which tends downward to that which moves upward, or as slow and stable to swift and full of motion; but as that which is heaviest to that which is most thin, or lastly, as that which is immovable of itself to that which moves spontaneously, and as possessing the middle space to that which is in a perpetual circular motion. Would it not be absurd to aver that the opposition of heat to cold is accompanied with so many and such remarkable contrarieties? But fire is bright, the earth is dark, nay, the very darkest and most void of light of all things. The air first of all participates of light, is soonest altered, and being replenished with radiancy, diffuses the splendor of it far and near, and shows itself a vast body of light. For the sun rising, as one of the dithyrambic authors writes,
Presently doth fill
The spacious house of the air-prancing winds.
From thence the descending air disposes a part of her brightness to the sea and lakes, and the hidden depths of profound rivers laugh and smile so far as the air penetrates into them. Only the earth of all bodies remains without light, and impenetrable to the beams of the sun and moon. But it is cherished and comforted by them, and suffers a small part of it to be warmed and softened by entrance of the heat. But the solidness of it will not admit the brightness of light, only the surface of it is enlightened; but the innermost parts of it are called by the names of Darkness, Chaos, and Hades; and Erebus is nothing else but that same perpetual darkness and horror in the body of the earth. Besides, the mythologists tell us that Night was the daughter of the Earth; and the mathematicians show that it is the shadow of the earth eclipsing the body of the sun. For the air is filled with darkness by the earth, as with light by the sun; and that part of the air which is void of all light is that same length of the night which is caused by the shadow of the earth. And therefore both men and many beasts make use of the exterior air, and ramble in the dark, guided only by some footsteps of light and certain effluxes of a dim twinkling that are scattered through it; but he that keeps house and shuts himself up in his chamber, as being encompassed by the earth, remains altogether blind and without light. Also the hides and horns of beasts will not admit of light by reason of their solidness; but being burnished and shaved, they become transparent, the air being intermixed with them. Moreover, I am of opinion that the earth is everywhere by the poets said to be black, by reason of the darkness of it and want of light. So that the antithesis of light and darkness is much more remarkable in reference to the earth, than in respect of the air.

> Greek: 17. σκόπει δὲ καὶ ταῦτα παραβάλλων ἐκείνοις ἐπεὶ δὲ καὶ Χρύσιππος οἰόμενος τὸν ἀέρα πρώτως ψυχρὸν εἶναι, διότι καὶ σκοτεινόν, ἐμνήσθη μόνον τῶν πλέον ἀφεστάναι τὸ ὕδωρ τοῦ αἰθέρος ἢ τὸν ἀέρα λεγόντων, καὶ πρὸς αὐτούς τι βουλόμενος εἰπεῖν οὕτω μὲν ἄν ἔφη καὶ τὴν γῆν ψυχρὰν εἶναι πρώτως λέγοιμεν, ὅτι τοῦ αἰθέρος ἀφέστηκε πλεῖστον,ʼ ὡς ἀδόκιμόν τινα παντελῶς τοῦτον καὶ. ἄτοπον ἀπορρίψας τὸν λόγον ἐγώ μοι δοκῶ μηδὲ τὴν γῆν ἄμοιρον εἰκότων καὶ πιθανῶν ἀποφαίνειν, ποιησάμενος ἀρχὴν ᾧ μάλιστα Χρύσιππος ὑπὲρ τοῦ ἀέρος κέχρηται. τί δὲ τοῦτʼ ἐστί; τὸ σκοτεινὸν ὄντα πρώτως εἶναι καὶ ψυχρὸν πρώτως. εἰ γὰρ δύο λαβὼν οὗτος ἀντιθέσεις δυνάμεων οἴεται τῇ ἑτέρᾳ καὶ τὴν ἑτέραν ἐξ ἀνάγκης; ἕπεσθαι, μυρίαι δήπουθὲν εἰσιν ἀντιτάξεις καὶ ἀντιπάθειαι πρὸς τὸν αἰθέρα τῆς γῆς,· αἷς καὶ ταύτην ἄν τις ἀκολουθεῖν ἀξιώσειεν. οὐ γὰρ ὡς βαρεῖα πρὸς κοῦφον καὶ καταρρεπὴς πρὸς ἀνωφερὲς ἀντίκειται μόνον, οὐδʼ ὡς πυκνὴ πρὸς ἀραιὸν οὐδʼ ὡς βραδεῖα καὶ στάσιμος πρὸς ὀξύρροπον καὶ κινητικόν, ἀλλʼ ὡς βαρυτάτη. πρὸς κουφότατον καὶ πυκνοτάτη πρὸς ἀραιότατον, καὶ τέλος ὡς ἀκίνητος ἐξ ἑαυτῆς πρὸς αὐτοκίνητον καὶ τὴν μέσην χώραν ἐπέχουσα πρὸς· ἀεὶ κυκλοφορούμενον. οὐκ ἄτοπον οὖν τηλικαύταις καὶ τοσαύταις ἀντιτάξεσι καὶ τὴν τῆς ψυχρότητος καὶ θερμότητος ἕπεσθαι. ναί, ἀλλὰ τὸ πῦρ καὶ λαμπρόν ἐστιν. οὔτι μὴν σκοτεινὸν ἡ γῆ; σκοτεινότατον μὲν οὖν ἁπάντων καὶ ἀφεγγέστατον. ἀέρι μέν τοι μετοχὴ φωτός ἐστι πρώτῳ, καὶ τάχιστα τρέπεται καὶ ἀναπλησθεὶς διανέμει πανταχοῦ τὴν λαμπρότητα, σῶμα παρέχων τῆς αὐγῆς ἑαυτόν· ὁ γὰρ ἥλιος ἀνίσχων, ὥς τις εἶπε τῶν διθυραμβοποιῶν, εὐθὺς ἀνέπλησεν ἀεροβατᾶν μέγαν οἶκον ἀνέμων· ἐκ τούτου δὲ καὶ λίμνῃ καὶ θαλάττῃ μοῖραν αὐγῆς κατιὼν ἐνίησι καὶ βυθοὶ ποταμῶν διαγελῶσιν, ὅσον ἀέρος ἐξικνεῖται πρὸς αὐτούς. μόνη δʼ ἡ γῆ τῶν σωμάτων ἀεὶ ἀφώτιστός ἐστι καὶ ἄτρωτος ὑφʼ ἡλίου καὶ σελήνης τῷ φωτίζοντι, θάλπεται δʼ ὑπʼ αὐτῶν καὶ παρέχει χλιαίνειν ἐπʼ ὀλίγον βάθος ἐνδυομένῳ τῷ θερμῷ· τὸ δὲ λαμπρὸν οὐ παρίησιν ὑπὸ στερεότητος ἀλλʼ ἐπιπολῆς περιφωτίζεται; τὰ δʼ ἐντὸς ὄρφνη καὶ χάος καὶ Ἅιδης ὀνομάζεται καὶ τὸ ἔρεβος τοῦτʼ ἦν ἄρα,ʼ τὸ χθόνιον καὶ ἔγγαιον σκότος. τὴν δὲ νύκτα ποιηταὶ μὲν ἐκ γῆς γεγονέναι μυθολογοῦσι, μαθηματικοὶ δὲ γῆς σκιὰν οὖσαν ἀποδεικνύουσιν, ἀντιφραττούσης πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον· ὁ γὰρ ἀὴρ ἀναπίμπλαται σκότους ὑπὸ γῆς ὡς φωτὸς ὑφʼ ἡλίου· καὶ τὸ ἀφώτιστον αὐτοῦ μῆκός ἐστι νυκτός, ὅσον ἡ σκιὰ τῆς γῆς ἐπινέμεται. διὸ τῷ μὲν ἐκτὸς ἀέρι καὶ νυκτὸς οὔσης ἄνθρωποί τε χρῶνται καὶ θηρία πολλὰ νομὰς ποιούμενα διὰ σκότους, ἁμωσγέπως ἴχνη φωτὸς καὶ ἀπορροὰς αὐγῆς ἐνδιεσπαρμένας· ἔχοντος ὁ δʼ οἰκουρὸς; καὶ ὑπωρόφιος, ἅτε δὴ τῆς γῆς πανταχόθεν περιεχούσης, κομιδῇ τυφλός ἐστι καὶ ἀφώτιστος. ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ δέρματα καὶ κέρατα ζῴων ὅλα μὲν οὐ διίησιν αὐγὴν ὑπὸ στερεότητος, ὅταν δὲ πρισθῇ καὶ καταξεσθῇ, γίγνεται διαφανῆ, παραμιχθέντος αὐτοῖς τοῦ ἀέρος. οἶμαι δὲ καὶ μέλαιναν ἑκάστοτε τὴν γῆν ὑπὸ τῶν ποιητῶν καλεῖσθαι διὰ τὸ σκοτῶδες καὶ τὸ ἀφώτιστον ὥστε καὶ τὴν πολυτίμητον ἀντίθεσιν τοῦ σκοτεινοῦ πρὸς τὸ λαμπρὸν ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς μᾶλλον ἢ τοῦ ἀέρος ὑπάρχειν.

[¶3] 18. But this is nothing to the question. For we have shown that there are many cold things which are bright and transparent, and many hot things which are obscure and dark. But ponderosity, stability, density, and immutability are qualities more properly belonging to cold, of none of which the air partakes, but of all of which the earth has a far greater share than the water. And yet in all these things cold, by the judgment of sense itself, appears to be hard, to cause hardness, and to make resistance. For Theophrastus tells us of fish that have been frozen by extremity of cold, when they have chanced to bounce ashore, that their bodies have been broken and crumbled to pieces like a vessel of glass or potter’s clay. You yourself have heard at Delphi, how that certain persons ascending to the top of Parnassus to succor the Thyades that were overtaken with a violent storm of wind and hail, their coats were frozen so hard and into a substance so like wood, that being spread upon the ground they broke and crumbled to pieces. It also stiffens the nerves and deprives the tongue of motion, congealing the moist and softer parts of the body.

> Greek: 18. ἀλλʼ αὕτη μὲν ἀπήρτηται τοῦ ζητουμένου πολλὰ γὰρ δέδεικται ψυχρὰ τῶν λαμπρῶν ὄντα καὶ θερμὰ τῶν ἀμαυρῶν καὶ σκοτεινῶν. ἐκεῖναι δὲ συγγενέστεραι δυνάμεις ψυχρότητός εἰσι, τὸ ἐμβριθὲς τὸ πυκνὸν τὸ μόνιμον τὸ ἀμετάβλητον ὧν ἀέρι μὲν οὐδεμιᾶς, γῇ δὲ μᾶλλον ἢ ὕδατι πασῶν μέτεστι. καὶ μὴν ἐν τοῖς μάλιστα τὸ ψυχρὸν αἰσθητῶς σκληρόν ἐστι καὶ σκληροποιὸν. καὶ ἀντίτυπον. ἰχθῦς μὲν γὰρ ἱστορεῖ Θεόφραστος ὑπὸ ῥίγους πεπηγότας, ἂν ἀφεθῶσιν ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν, κατάγνυσθαι καὶ συντρίβεσθαι δίκην ὑελῶν ἢ κεραμεῶν σωμάτων., ἐν δὲ Δελφοῖς αὐτὸς ἢκουες ὅτι τῶν εἰς τὸν Παρνασὸν ἀναβάντων βοηθῆσαι ταῖς Θυιάσιν, ἀπειλημμέναις ὑπὸ πνεύματος χαλεποῦ καὶ χιόνος, οὕτως ἐγένοντο διὰ τὸν πάγον σκληραὶ καὶ ξυλώδεις αἱ χλαμύδες, ὡς καὶ θραύεσθαι διατεινομένας καὶ ῥήγνυσθαι. ποιεῖ δὲ καὶ νεῦρα δυσκαμπῆ καὶ γλῶτταν ἄναυδον ἀκινησίᾳ καὶ σκληρότητι τὸ ἄγαν ψῦχος, ἐκπηγνύον τὰ καὶ μαλακὰ τοῦ σώματος.

[¶4] 19. This being obvious to sight, let us consider the effect. Every faculty, wherever it prevails, changes into itself whatever it overcomes. Thus whatever is overcome by heat is set on fire; that which is vanquished by wind is changed into air. That which falls into water becomes well moistened, unless quickly saved. Of necessity, therefore, those things which are violently affected by cold must be changed into the primitive cold. For freezing is an excess of refrigeration; which congelation ends in alteration and petrifaction, when the cold, prevailing every way, congeals the liquid substance and presses forth the heat; so that the bottom of the earth is, as it were, a kind of congelation, and altogether ice. For there the cold inhabits simple and unmixed, and removed hard and rigid at the greatest distance from the sky. But as for those things which are conspicuous, as rocks and precipices, Empedocles believes them to be thrust forth and supported by the fire that burns in the bottom of the earth. Which appears the more, in regard that, wherever the heat is pressed forth and vanishes away, all those things are congealed or stiffened by the cold; and therefore congelations are called πάγοι (stiffened). And the extremities of many things where heat fails, growing black, make them look like brands when the fire is out. For cold congeals some things more, some things less; more especially such things wherein it is primitively existent. For as, if it be the nature of hot to render light, that which is hottest is lightest; if of moist to soften, that which is moistest is softest; so if it be the nature of cold to congeal, of necessity that which is coldest must be most congealed,—that is to say the earth,—and that which is most cold must be that which is by nature and primitively cold, which is no more than what is apparent to sense. For mud is colder than water, and earth being thrown upon fire puts it out. Your smiths also, when their iron is melted and red hot, strew upon it the dust of marble to cool it and stop the running of it too fluidly. Dust also cools the bodies of the wrestlers, and dries up their sweat.

> Greek: 19. ὧν βλεπομένων, σκόπει τὸ γιγνόμενον οὕτω. πᾶσα δήπου δύναμις, ἂν περιγένηται, πέφυκε μεταβάλλειν καὶ τρέπειν εἰς ἑαυτὴν τὸ νικώμενον τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὑπὸ θερμοῦ κρατηθὲν ἐκπυροῦται, τὸ ὑπὸ πνεύματος ἐξαεροῦται, τὸ δʼ εἰς ὕδωρ ἐμπεσόν, ἂν μὴ διαφύγῃ,- καθυγραίνεται, συνδιαχεόμενον. ἀνάγκη δὴ καὶ τὰ ψυχόμενα κομιδῇ μεταβάλλειν εἰς τὸ πρώτως ψυχρόν ἔστι δʼ ὑπερβολὴ ψύξεως πῆξις, πῆξις δʼ εἰς ἀγνωσίαν τελευτᾷ καὶ λίθωσιν, ὅταν, παντάπασι τοῦ ψυχροῦ κρατήσαντος, ἐκπαγῇ μὲν τὸ ὑγρὸν ἐκθλιβῇ δὲ τὸ θερμόν. ὅθεν ἡ μὲν ἐν βάθει γῆ πάγος ἐστὶν ὡς εἰπεῖν καὶ κρύσταλλος ἅπασα τὸ γὰρ ψυχρὸν ἄκρατον οἰκουρεῖ καὶ ἀμάλακτον ἀπεωσμένον ἐκεῖ τοῦ αἰθέρος ἀπωτάτω ταυτὶ δὲ· τὰ ἐμφανῆ, κρημνοὺς καὶ σκοπέλους καὶ πέτρας, Ἐμπεδοκλῆς μὲν ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς οἴεται τοῦ ἐν βάθει τῆς γῆς ἑστάναι καὶ ἀνέχεσθαι διερειδόμενα φλεγμαίνοντος· ἐμφαίνεται δὲ μᾶλλον, ὅσων τὸ θερμὸν ἐξεθλίβη καὶ διέπτατο, πάντα ταῦτα παντάπασιν ὑπὸ τῆς ψυχρότητος παγῆναι διὸ καὶ πάγοι καλοῦνται. καὶ τὰ ἄκρα πολλῶν ἐπιμελανθέντων, τὸ θερμὸν ἐξέπεσε, πυρικαύστοις ἰδεῖν προσέοικε πήγνυσι γὰρ τὸ ψυχρὸν τὰ μὲν μᾶλλον τὰ δʼ ἧττον, μάλιστα δʼ οἷς πρώτως ἐνυπάρχειν πέφυκεν. ὥσπερ γάρ, εἰ θερμοῦ τὸ κουφίζειν, θερμότατόν ἐστι τὸ κουφότατον· εἰ δʼ ὑγροῦ τὸ μαλάσσειν, ὑγρότατον τὸ μαλακώτατον· οὕτως, εἰ ψυχροῦ τὸ πηγνύειν, ἀνάγκη ψυχρότατον εἶναι τὸ μάλιστα πεπηγός, οἷον ἡ γῆ τὸ δὲ ψυχρότατον φύσει δήπου καὶ πρώτως ψυχρὸν ὥστε φύσει καὶ· πρώτως ψυχρὸν ἡ γῆ. τοῦτο δʼ ἀμέλει καὶ τῇ αἰσθήσει δῆλόν ἐστι καὶ γὰρ πηλὸς ὕδατοσψυχρότερος καὶ τὸ πῦρ γῆν ἐπιφοροῦντες ἀφανίζουσιν οἱ· δὲ χαλκεῖς τῷ πυρουμένῳ καὶ ἀνατηκομένῳ σιδήρῳ μάρμαρον καὶ λατύπην παραπάσσουσι, τὴν πολλὴν ῥύσιν ἐφιστάντες καὶ καταψύχοντες· ψύχει δὲ καὶ τὰ τῶν ἀθλητῶν κόνις σώματα καὶ κατασβέννυσι τοὺς ἱδρῶτας.

[¶5] 20. To go no farther, what means our own yearly practice to alter our lodgings and habitations, while we remove in the winter so far as we can into the upper parts of our buildings, but in the summer descend again and seek convenient refuge in the lower edifices, sometimes enjoying ourselves under ground in the very arms of the earth? Do we not do it, as being guided by our senses for coolness’s sake to the earth, and thereby acknowledging that to be the seat of primitive cold? And certainly our coveting to live near the sea in winter may be thought to be a kind of flight from the earth, since we seem to forsake it, as far as we can, by reason of the nipping frosts, and run to encircle themselves with the air of the sea for warmth’s sake; and then again in the summer, by reason of the scorching heat, we desire the earth-born upland air, not because it is cold of itself, but because it had its original and blossomed from the primitive natural cold, and is imbued with that power which is in the earth, as iron is imbued with the virtue of the water wherein it is quenched. Then again, of river waters we find those are the coldest that flow upon gravel and stones and fall down from mountains; and of well-waters, those which are in the deepest wells. For with these the exterior air is no longer mixed, by reason of the depth of the wells, and the other arise out of the pure and unmixed earth; like the river that falls from the mountain Taenarum, which they call the water of Styx, rising out of a rock with a parsimonious spring, but so cold that no other vessel except the hoof of an ass will hold it; for all other sorts of vessels it breaks and cracks to pieces.

> Greek: 20. ἡ δὲ καθʼ ἕκαστον ἐνιαυτὸν ἡμᾶς μετάγουσα καὶ μετοικίζουσα χρεία τί βούλεται, χειμῶνος μὲν ἀπωτάτω φεύγουσα τῆς γῆς εἰς τὰ μετέωρα καὶ ἀπόγεια, θέρους δὲ πάλιν ἀντεχομένη τῶν κάτω καὶ ὑποδυομένη καὶ διώκουσα προσφόρους καταφυγάς, τιθεμένη τὴν δίαιταν ἐν ἀγκάλαις γῆς ἀγαπητῶς; ἆρʼ οὐχὶ ταῦτα ποιοῦμεν ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν ὑπὸ ψυχρότητος ὁδηγούμενοι τῇ αἰσθήσει καὶ τὸ πρώτως φύσει ψυχρὸν ἐπιγινώσκοντες; αἱ γοῦν παράλιοι χειμῶνος δίαιται τρόπον τινὰ γῆς φυγαί εἰσιν, ὡς ἀνυστὸν ἀπολειπόντων διὰ κρύος αὐτήν, τὸν δʼ ἔναλον ἀέρα καὶ πελάγιον θερμὸν ὄντα περιβαλλομένων εἶτʼ αὖθις ἐν θέρει τὸν γηγενῆ καὶ χερσαῖον ὑπὸ καύματος ποθοῦμεν, οὐκ αὐτὸν ὄντα ψυχρὸν ἀλλὰ τοῦ φύσει ψυχροῦ καὶ πρώτως ἀποβλαστάνοντα καὶ βεβαμμένον ὑπὸ τῆς ἐν γῇ δυνάμεως ὥσπερ βαφῇ σίδηρον. καὶ γὰρ. τῶν ῥυτῶν ὑδάτων τὰ πετραῖα καὶ ὀρεινὰ ψυχρότατα καὶ τῶν φρεατιαίων τὰ κοιλότατα· τούτοις μὲν γὰρ οὐκέτι μίγνυται διὰ βάθους ἔξωθεν ὁ ἀήρ, ἐκεῖνα δʼ ἐκπίπτει διὰ τῆς γῆς ἀμίκτου καὶ καθαρᾶς, ὡς τὸ περὶ Ταίναρον, ὃ δὴ Στυγὸς ὕδωρ καλοῦσιν, ἐκ πέτρας γλίσχρως συλλειβόμενον οὕτω ψυχρόν ἐστιν, ὥστε μηδὲν ἀγγεῖον ἄλλο μόνην δʼ ὁπλὴν ὄνου στέγειν· τὰ δʼ ἄλλα διακόπτει καὶ ῥήγνυσιν.

[¶6] 21. The physicians also tell us that the nature of all sorts of earth is binding and restrictive; and they number up several sorts of metals which are made use of in physic by reason of their styptic and binding qualities. For the element of earth is fit neither to cut nor to move, neither has it any points, neither is it subject to be softened or melted, but is firm and stable like a cube; and therefore it has both ponderosity and coldness, and the faculty to thicken and condense moist things; and it causes tremblings and quiverings in bodies by reason of its inequality; and if it get the better by the utter expulsion and extinguishing of the heat, it occasions a frozen and deadly habit of body. Therefore earth either does not consume by burning, or else burns with a very slow and difficult progress. But the air many times darts forth flame from itself; and being once set on fire, it grows fluid and flashes out in lightning. Heat also feeds upon moisture; for it is not the solid part of the wood, but the moist and oily part, that is combustible; which being consumed, the solid and dry is left behind in the ashes. Neither do they arrive at their mark, who, pretending to burn the ashes also, sprinkle them with oil and grease; for when the liquid is consumed, the earthy part remains, do what they can. Therefore, because the earth is not only of a nature not to be moved from its station, but also unalterable in its substance and always abiding in the habitation of the Gods, the ancients well called it Hestia or Vesta (from standing), by reason of its immobility and concretion; of which cold is the bond or ligament, as Archelaus the philosopher termed it, which nothing is able to unloosen or soften, as not being capable of heat and warmth. As for those who say they have been sensible of the cold of air and water, but never felt the earth so cold, they consider only the surface of the earth, which is a mixture of air, water, sun, and heat. They are no better than people who deny the aether to be naturally and primitively hot, but believe it to be either scalding water or red hot iron, because they feel and handle the one, but are not sensible of the pure and celestial fire. In like manner, neither do they see the earth which lies concealed at the bottom, though that be what is chiefly to be taken for the earth, separated from all other things. We may see some token of this lower earth in these rocks here about us, which from their depths send forth a cold vapor so sharp and vehement that it is hard to be endured. They also that desire cool drink throw small flint stones into water. For it becomes denser and quicker to the taste, through the cold which is carried upward fresh and unmixed from the stones.

> Greek: 21. ἔτι γε μὴν τῶν ἰατρῶν ἀκούομεν, ὡς πᾶσα γῆ τῷ γένει στύφειν καὶ ψύχειν πέφυκε καὶ πολλὰ τῶν μεταλλευομένων καταριθμοῦσι στυπτικὴν αὐτοῖς παρέχοντα καὶ σχετικὴν εἰς τὰς φαρμακείας δύναμιν· καὶ γὰρ τὸ στοιχεῖον αὐτῆς; οὐ τμητικὸν οὐδὲ κινητικὸν οὐδὲ λεῖπον οὐδʼ ἔχον ὀξύτητας οὐδὲ μαλθακὸν οὐδʼ εὐπερίχυτον γέγονεν, ἀλλʼ ἑδραῖον ὡς ὁ κύβος καὶ συνερειστικόν, ὅθεν αὐτή τε βρῖθος ἔσχε,· καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, ὅπερ ἦν δύναμις αὐτῆς, τῷ πυκνοῦν καὶ συνωθεῖν καὶ ἀποθλίβειν τὰ ὑγρὰ φρίκας καὶ τρόμους διὰ τὴν ἀνωμαλίαν ἐνεργάζεται τοῖς σώμασιν· ἂν δʼ ἐπικρατήσῃ παντάπασι, τοῦ θερμοῦ φυγόντος ἢ σβεσθέντος, ἔστησε τὴν ἕξιν ἐκπαγεῖσαν καὶ νεκρωθεῖσαν. ὅθεν οὐδὲ κάεται γῆ τὸ παράπαν ἢ κάεται γλίσχρως καὶ μόγις. ἀὴρ μὲν γὰρ ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ πολλάκις φλόγας ἀναδίδωσι καὶ ῥεῖ καὶ διαστράπτει πυρούμενος· τῷ δʼ ὑγρῷ τροφῇ χρῆται τὸ θερμόν· οὐ γὰρ τὸ στερεὸν ἀλλὰ τὸ νοτερὸν τοῦ ξύλου καυστόν ἐστιν· ἐξικμασθέντος δὲ τούτου, τὸ στερεὸν καὶ ξηρὸν ἀπολείπεται τέφρα γενόμενον. οἱ δὲ καὶ τοῦτο φιλοτιμούμενοι μεταβάλλον ἀποδεῖξαι καὶ καταναλισκόμενον ἀναδεύοντες πολλάκις ἐλαίῳ καὶ στέατι φύροντες οὐδὲν περαίνουσιν, ἀλλʼ ὅταν ἐκκαῇ τὸ λιπαρόν, περίεστι πάντως καὶ διαμένει τὸ γεῶδες· ὅθεν οὐ κατὰ χώραν μόνον ἐξ ἕδρας ἀκίνητον οὖσαν αὐτὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ κατʼ οὐσίαν ἀμετάβλητον, Ἑστίαν, ἅτε δὴ μένουσαν ἐν θεῶν οἴκῳ, κλίτα προσηγόρευσαν οἱ παλαιοί, διὰ τὴν στάσιν καὶ πῆξιν· ἧς ἡ ψυχρότης δεσμός ἐστιν, ὡς Ἀρχέλαος ὁ φυσικὸς εἶπεν, οὐδενὸς χαλῶντος αὐτὴν οὐδὲ μαλάττοντος, ἅτε θερομένην καὶ ἀλεαινομένην οὖσαν. οἱ δὲ πνεύματος μὲν αἰσθάνεσθαι ψυχροῦ καὶ ὕδατος, γῆς δʼ ἧττον οἰόμενοι, τὴν ἔγγιστα γῆν ὁρῶσιν ἀέρων καὶ ὑδάτων καὶ ἡλίου καὶ θερμότητος ἀνάπλεων σύμμιγμα καὶ συμφόρημα γεγενημένην· καὶ οὐδὲν διαφέρουσι τῶν μὴ τὸν αἰθέρα φύσει καὶ πρώτως θερμὸν ἀλλὰ τὸ ζέον ὕδωρ ἢ τὸν διάπυρον σίδηρον ἀποφαινομένων, ὅτι τούτων μὲν ἅπτονται καὶ προσθιγγάνουσι, τοῦ δὲ πρώτου καθαροῦ καὶ οὐρανίου πυρὸς αἴσθησιν διʼ ἁφῆς οὐ λαμβάνουσιν, ὥσπερ οὐδʼ οὗτοι τῆς ἐν βάθει γῆς, ἣν μάλιστα γῆν ἄν τις νοήσειεν αὐτὴν καθʼ αὑτὴν ἀποκεκριμένην τῶν ἄλλων. δεῖγμα δʼ αὐτῆς ἐστι κἀνταῦθα περὶ τὰς πέτρας· πολὺ γὰρ ἐκ βάθους καὶ οὐ ῥᾴδιον ἀνασχέσθαι προσβάλλουσι κρύος;. οἱ δὲ ψυχροτέρου ποτοῦ δεόμενοι χάλικας ἐμβάλλουσιν εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ· γίγνεται γὰρ οὐλότερον καὶ στομοῦται παρὰ τὴν ἀπὸ τῶν λίθων ψυχρότητα, πρόσφατον καὶ ἄκρατον ἀναφερομένην.

[¶7] 22. Therefore it was the opinion of the ancient philosophers and learned men, that terrestrial and celestial things were not to be mixed together, not so much out of a local consideration of uppermost and lowermost, in respect of place, but with a respect to the difference of faculties, attributing hot and splendent, swift and light to the immortal and sempiternal Nature, but believing dark and cold and slow to be the unhappy portion of the dead under the shackles of corruption. Since the body of a living creature, while it breathes and flourishes (as the poets say), enjoys both heat and life; but being deprived of these, and only the terrestrial parts remaining, presently cold and stiffness take place, as if heat were naturally existent in every thing else but only the earth.

> Greek: 22. τοὺς οὖν πάλαι σοφοὺς καὶ λογίους ἄμικτα θέσθαι τὰ ἐπίγεια καὶ τὰ οὐράνια χρὴ νομίζειν, οὐ τοῖς τόποις ὥσπερ ἐπὶ ζυγοῦ πρὸς τὰ κάτω καὶ ἄνω βλέποντας, ἀλλὰ τῇ διαφορᾷ τῶν δυνάμεων τὰ μὲν θερμὰ καὶ λαμπρὰ καὶ ταχέα καὶ κοῦφα τῇ θείᾳ καὶ ἀιδίῳ φύσει προσνέμοντας, τὰ δὲ σκοτεινὰ καὶ ψυχρὰ καὶ βραδέα φθιτῶν καὶ ἐνέρων οὐκ εὐδαίμονα κλῆρον ἀποφαίνοντας. ἐπεὶ καὶ τὸ σῶμα τοῦ ζῴου, μέχρι μὲν ἔμπνουν ἐστὶ καὶ θαλερόν, ὡς οἱ ποιηταὶ λέγουσι, θερμότητι χρῆται καὶ ζωῇ· γενόμενον δὲ τούτων ἔρημον καὶ ἀπολειφθὲν ἐν μόνῃ τῇ τῆς γῆς μοίρᾳ ψυχρότης εὐθὺς ἴσχει καὶ κρύος, ὡς ἐν παντὶ μᾶλλον ἢ τῷ γεώδει κατὰ φύσιν θερμότητος ἐνυπαρχούσης ταῦτʼ, ὦ Φαβωρῖνε, τοῖς εἰρημένοις ὑφʼ ἑτέρων παράβαλλε·

[¶8] 23. These things, dear Favorinus, compare with what has been said by others; and if they neither come too short of probability nor too much exceed it, bid all their opinions farewell, as believing it much more becoming a philosopher to pause in dubious matters, rather than over hastily to side with any one particular party.

> Greek: 23. κἂν μήτε λείπηται τῇ πιθανότητι μήτε ὑπερέχῃ πολύ, χαίρειν ἔα τὰς δόξας, τὸ ἐπέχειν ἐν τοῖς ἀδήλοις τοῦ συγκατατίθεσθαι φιλοσοφώτερον ἡγούμενος.