---
title: "The Roman Questions · Quaestiones Romanae"
author: "Plutarch"
translator: "Isaac Chauncy, rev. William W. Goodwin"
languages: [grc, en]
shelf: "Philosophy"
section: 1 of 4
url: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-roman-questions/1/
cite: "Plutarch, tr. Isaac Chauncy, rev. William W. Goodwin, The Roman Questions · Quaestiones Romanae, section 1. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-roman-questions/1/"
---

# The Roman Questions · Quaestiones Romanae

*Plutarch, tr. Isaac Chauncy, rev. William W. Goodwin*

A hundred and thirteen questions about Roman customs: why brides are carried over the threshold, why the priest of Jupiter may not touch a horse.

> Greek: ed. Grēgorios N. Vernardakēs, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-greekLit, tlg0007.tlg084a, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: Isaac Chauncy, rev. William W. Goodwin, from the Perseus Digital Library (tlg0007.tlg084a.perseus-eng4). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 1. Sections 1–26

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-roman-questions/1/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/plutarch-roman-questions/1/#p-N

[¶0] 1. Question 1. Wherefore do the Romans require a new-married woman to touch fire and water? Solution. Is it not for one of these reasons; amongst elements and principles, one is masculine and the other feminine;— one (fire) hath in it the principles of motion, the other (water) hath the faculty of a subject and matter? Or is it because fire refines and water cleanseth, and a married wife ought to continue pure and chaste? Or is it because fire without moisture doth not nourish, but is adust, and water destitute of heat is barren and sluggish; so both the male and female apart are of no force, but a conjunction of both in marriage completes society? Or is the meaning that they must never forsake each other, but must communicate in every fortune, and although there be no goods, yet they may participate with each other in fire and water?

> Greek: 1. διὰ τί τὴν γαμουμένην ἅπτεσθαι πυρὸς καὶ ὕδατος κελεύουσι πότερον τούτων ὡς ἐν στοιχείοις καὶ ἀρχαῖς τὸ μὲν ἄρρεν ἐστὶ τὸ δὲ θῆλυ, καὶ τὸ μὲν ἀρχὰς κινήσεως ἐνίησι τὸ δʼ ὑποκειμένου καὶ ὕλης δύναμιν· διότι τὸ πῦρ καθαίρει καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ ἁγνίζει, δεῖ δὲ καθαρὰν καὶ ἁγνὴν διαμένειν τὴν γαμηθεῖσαν; ὅτι, καθάπερ τὸ πῦρ χωρὶς ὑγρότητος ἄτροφόν ἐστι καὶ ξηρὸν τὸ δὲ ὕδωρ ἄνευ θερμότητος ἄγονον καὶ ἀργόν, οὕτω καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν ἀδρανὲς καὶ τὸ θῆλυ χωρὶς ἀλλήλων ἡ δὲ σύνοδος ἀμφοῖν ἐπιτελεῖ τοῖς γήμασι τὴν συμβίωσιν; ἢ οὐκ ἀπολειπτέον καὶ κοινωνητέον ἁπάσης τύχης, κἂν ἄλλου μηδενὸς ἢ πυρὸς καὶ ὕδατος μέλλωσι κοινωνεῖν ἀλλήλοις;

[¶1] 2. Question 2. Why do they light at nuptials five torches, neither more nor less, which they call waxen tapers? Solution. Whether it be (as Varro saith) that the Praetors use three, but more are permitted to the Aediles, and married persons do light the fire at the Aediles’ torches? Or is it that, having use of many numbers, the odd number was reckoned better and perfecter upon other accounts, and therefore more adapted to matrimony? For the even number admits of division, and the equal parts of opposition and repugnancy, whenas the odd cannot be divided, but being divided into parts leaves always an inequality. The number five is most matrimonial of odd numbers, for three is the first odd and two is the first even, of which five is compounded, as of male and female. Or rather, because light is a sign of generation, and it is natural to a woman, for the most part, to bring forth so far as five successively, and therefore they use five torches? Or is it because they suppose that married persons have occasion for five Gods, Nuptial Jupiter, Nuptial Juno, Venus, Suada, and above all the rest Diana, whom women invocate in their travail and child-bed sickness?

> Greek: 2. διὰ τί οὐ πλείονας οὐδʼ ἐλάττονας ἀλλὰ πέντε λαμπάδας ἅπτουσιν ἐν τοῖς γάμοις, ἃς κηρίωνας ὀνομάζουσιν πότερον, ὡς Βάρρων ἔλεγεν, ὅτι τῶν στρατηγῶν τρισὶ χρωμένων, σὺν τοῖς ἀγορανόμοις πλείονας, παρὰ δὲ τῶν ἀγορανόμων ἅπτουσι τὸ πῦρ οἱ γαμοῦντες, ἢ διότι πλείοσι χρωμένων ἀριθμοῖς, πρός τε τὰ ἄλλα βελτίων καὶ τελειότερος ὁ περιττὸς ἐνομίζετο καὶ πρὸς γάμον ἁρμοδιώτερος; ὁ γὰρ ἄρτιος διάστασίν τε δέχεται καὶ τὸ ἴσον αὐτοῦ μάχιμόν ἐστι καὶ ἀντίπαλον, ὁ δὲ περιττὸς οὐ δύναται, διασχισθῆναι παντάπασιν, ἀλλʼ ὑπολείπει τι, κοινὸν ἀεὶ μεριζόμενος. τοῦ δὲ, περιττοῦ μάλιστα γαμήλιος ἡ πεντάς ἐστι· τὰ γὰρ τρία πρῶτος περιττὸς καὶ τὰ δύο πρῶτος ἄρτιος· ἐκ δὲ τούτων ὥσπερ ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος ἡ πεντὰς μέμικται. ἢ μᾶλλον, ἐπεὶ τὸ φῶς γενέσεώς ἐστι σημεῖον, γυνὴ δʼ ἄχρι πέντε τίκτειν ὁμοῦ τὰ πλεῖστα πέφυκε, τοσαύταις χρῶνται λαμπάσιν; ἢ ὅτι πέντε δεῖσθαι θεῶν τοὺς γαμοῦντας οἴονται, Διὸς τελείου καὶ Ἥρας τελείας καὶ Ἀφροδίτης καὶ Πειθοῦς, ἐπὶ πᾶσι δʼ Ἀρτέμιδος, ἣν ταῖς λοχείαις καὶ ταῖς ὠδῖσιν αἱ γυναῖκες ἐπικαλοῦνται;

[¶2] 3. Question 3. What is the reason that, seeing there are so many of Diana’s temples in Rome, the men refrain going into that only which stands in Patrician Street? Solution. Is it upon the account of the fabulous story, that a certain man, ravishing a woman that was there worshipping the Goddess, was torn in pieces by dogs; and hence this superstitious practice arose, that men enter not in?

> Greek: 3. διὰ τί, πολλῶν ὄντων ἐν Ῥώμῃ ναῶν Ἀρτέμιδος, εἰς μόνον τὸν ἐν τῷ καλουμένῳ Πατρικίῳ στενωπῷ ἄνδρες οὐκ εἰσίασιν; ἦ διὰ τὸν λεγόμενον μῦθον; γυναῖκα γὰρ αὐτόθι τὴν θεὸν σεβομένην βιαζόμενός τις ὑπὸ τῶν κυνῶν διεσπάσθη, καὶ ἀπὸ τούτου δεισιδαιμονίας γενομένης ἄνδρες οὐκ εἰσίασι.

[¶3] 4. Question 4. Why do they in all other temples of Diana ordinarily nail up stags’ horns against the wall, whenas in that of the Aventine they nail up the horns of cattle? Solution. Was it to put them in mind of an old casualty? For it is said, that among the Sabines one Antro Coratius had a very comely cow, far excelling all others in handsomeness and largeness, and was told by a certain diviner that whoever should offer up that cow in sacrifice to Diana on the Aventine, his city was determined by fate to be the greatest in the world and have dominion over all Italy. This man came to Rome, with an intention to sacrifice his cow there; but a servant acquainted King Servius privately with this privacy, and the king making it known to Cornelius the priest, Cornelius strictly commands Antro to wash in Tiber before he sacrificed, for the law requires men so to do who would sacrifice acceptably. Wherefore, whilst Antro went to wash, Servius took the opportunity to sacrifice the cow to the Goddess, and nailed up the horns to the wall in the temple. These things are storied by Juba and Varro, only Varro hath not described Antro by that name, neither doth he say that the Sabine was choused by Cornelius the priest, but by the sexton.

> Greek: 4. διὰ τί τοῖς ἄλλοις Ἀρτεμισίοις ἐπιεικῶς ἐλάφων κέρατα προσπατταλεύουσι, τῷ δʼ ἐν Ἀβεντίνῳ βοῶν; ἦ τοῦ παλαιοῦ συμπτώματος ἀπομνημονεύοντες; λέγεται γὰρ ἐν Σαβίνοις Ἄντρωνι Κορατίῳ βοῦς ἐκπρεπὴς ὄψει καὶ μεγέθει διαφέρουσα τῶν ἄλλων γενέσθαι· μάντεως δέ τινος αὐτῷ φράσαντος, ὅτι τοῦ καθιερεύσαντος Ἀρτέμιδι τὴν βοῦν ἐκείνην ἐν Ἀβεντίνῳ πέπρωται μεγίστην γενέσθαι καὶ βασιλεῦσαι τῆς Ἰταλίας, ἁπάσης τὴν πόλιν, ἐλθεῖν μὲν εἰς Ῥώμην τὸν ἄνθρωπον ὡς θύσοντα τὴν βοῦν οἰκέτου δὲ κρύφα τῷ βασιλεῖ Σερουίῳ τὸ μάντευμα φράσαντος, ἐκείνου δὲ Κορνηλίῳ τῷ ἱερεῖ, προστάξαι τὸν Κορνήλιον τῷ Ἄντρωνι λούσασθαι πρὸ τῆς θυσίας ἀπὸ τοῦ Θύμβρεως· νενομίσθαι γὰρ οὕτω τοὺς καλλιεροῦντας. ἐκεῖνον μὲν οὖν ἀπελθόντα λούσασθαι, τὸν δὲ Σερούιον φθάσαντα θῦσαι τῇ θεῷ τὴν βοῦν καὶ τῷ ἱερῷ τὰ κέρατα προσπατταλεῦσαι. ταῦτα καὶ ὁ Ἰόβας ἱστόρηκε καὶ Βάρρων, πλὴν ὅτι τοὔνομα τοῦ Ἄντρωνος Βάρρων οὐ γέγραφεν, οὐδʼ ὑπὸ Κορνηλίου φησὶ τοῦ ἱερέως ἀλλʼ ὑπὸ τοῦ νεωκόρου παρακρουσθῆναι τὸν Σαβῖνον.

[¶4] 5. Question 5. Wherefore is it that those that are falsely reported to be dead in foreign countries, when they return, they receive not by the doors, but getting up to the roof of the house, they let them in that way? Solution. Verily the account which Varro gives of this matter is altogether fabulous. For he saith, in the Sicilian war, when there was a great naval fight, and a very false report was rumored concerning many as if they were slain, all of them returning home in a little time died. But as one of them was going to enter in at his doors, they shut together against him of their own accord, neither could they be opened by any that attempted it. This man, falling in a sleep before the doors, saw an apparition in his sleep advising him to let himself down from the roof into the house, and doing so, he lived happily and became an old man; and hence the custom was confirmed to after ages. But consider if these things be not conformable to some usages of the Greeks. For they do not esteem those pure nor keep them company nor suffer them to approach their sacrifices, for whom any funeral was carried forth or sepulchre made as if they were dead; and they say that Aristinus, being one that was become an object of this sort of superstition, sent to Delphi to beg and beseech of the God a resolution of the anxieties and troubles which he had by reason of the custom then in force. Pythia answered thus:—
The sacred rites t’ which child-bed folks conform,
See that thou do to blessed Gods perform. Aristinus, well understanding the meaning of the oracle, puts himself into the women’s hands, to be washed and wrapped in swaddling clouts, and sucks the breasts, in the same manner as when he was newly born; and thus all others do, and such are called Hysteropotmi (i.e. those for whom a funeral was made while living). But some say that these ceremonies were before Aristinus, and that the custom was ancient. Wherefore it is not to be wondered at, if the Romans, when once they suppose a man buried and to have his lot among the dead, do not think it lawful for him to go in at the door whereat they that are about to sacrifice do go out or those that have sacrificed do enter in, but bid them ascend aloft into the air, and thence descend into the open court of the house. For they constantly offer their sacrifices of purification in this open court.

> Greek: 5. διὰ τί τοὺς τεθνάναι φημισθέντας ἐπὶ ξένης ψευδῶς, κἂν ἐπανέλθωσιν, οὐ δέχονται κατὰ θύρας, ἀλλὰ τῷ κεράμῳ προσβαίνοντες εἴσω καθιᾶσιν αὑτούς; ὁ μὲν γὰρ Βάρρων αἰτίαν μυθικὴν ὅλως ἀποδίδωσι. φησὶ γάρ, ἐν τῷ περὶ Σικελίαν πολέμῳ ναυμαχίας μεγάλης γενομένης καὶ κατὰ πολλῶν φήμης οὐκ ἀληθοῦς ὡς ἀπολωλότων ῥυείσης, ἐπανελθόντας αὐτοὺς ὀλίγῳ χρόνῳ πάντας τελευτῆσαι, ἑνὶ δʼ εἰσιόντι τὰς θύρας ἀπαντῆσαι κλειομένας ἀπʼ αὐτομάτου καὶ μὴ χαλᾶν ἐπιχειρούντων ἀνοίγειν. τὸν δʼ ἄνθρωπον αὐτοῦ καταδαρθόντα πρὸ τῶν θυρῶν ἰδεῖν κατὰ τοὺς ὕπνους ὄψιν ὑφηγουμένην αὐτῷ τὴν ὑπὲρ τὸ τέγος εἰς τὴν οἰκίαν καθίμησιν· ποιήσαντα δʼ οὕτως εὐτυχῆ γενέσθαι καὶ γηραιόν· ἐκ δὲ τούτου τὸ ἔθος καταστῆναι τοῖς ὕστερον. ὅρα δὲ μὴ καὶ ταῦτα τρόπον τινὰ τοῖς Ἑλληνικοῖς ἔοικεν· οὐ γὰρ ἐνόμιζον ἁγνοὺς οὐδὲ κατεμίγνυσαν ἑαυτοῖς οὐδʼ εἴων ἱεροῖς πλησιάζειν, οἷς ἐκφορὰ γεγόνει καὶ τάφος ὡς τεθνηκόσι. λέγεται δέ τινα τῶν ἐνόχων ταύτῃ τῇ δεισιδαιμονίᾳ γεγονότων Ἀριστῖνον εἰς Δελφοὺς ἀποστείλαντα δεῖσθαι τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ παραιτεῖσθαι τὰς παρούσας αὐτῷ διὰ τὸν νόμον ἀπορίας· τὴν δὲ Πυθίαν εἰπεῖν
ὅσσαπερ ἐν λεχέεσσι γυνὴ τίκτουσα τελεῖται,
ταῦτα πάλιν τελέσαντα θύειν μακάρεσσι θεοῖσι.
τὸν οὖν Ἀριστῖνον συμφρονήσαντα παρασχεῖν ἑαυτὸν ὥσπερ ἀρχῆς τικτόμενον ταῖς γυναιξὶν ἀπολοῦσαι καὶ σπαργανῶσαι καὶ θηλὴν ἐπισχεῖν, οὕτω τε δρᾶν καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ἅπαντας, ὑστεροπότμους προσαγορευομένους. ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ πρὸ τοῦ Ἀριστίνου ταῦτα γενέσθαι περὶ τοὺς ὑστεροπότμους καὶ τὸ ἔθος εἶναι παλαιόν. οὐδὲν οὖν θαυμαστόν, εἰ καὶ Ῥωμαῖοι τοῖς δοκοῦσιν ἅπαξ τεθάφθαι καὶ γεγονέναι τῆς τῶν φθιτῶν μερίδος οὐκ ᾤοντο δεῖν παριέναι τὴν αὔλειον, ᾗ θύσοντες ἐξίασι καὶ θύσαντες εἰσίασιν, ἀλλʼ ἄνωθεν ἐκέλευον εἰς τὰ ὕπαιθρα καταβαίνειν ἐκ τοῦ περιέχοντος· καὶ γὰρ τοὺς καθαρμοὺς ἐπιεικῶς πάντας ἐν ὑπαίθρῳ τελοῦσι.

[¶5] 6. Question 6. Wherefore do women salute their relations with their mouth? Solution. What if it should be (as many suppose) that women were forbid to drink wine; therefore that those that drank it might not be undiscovered, but convicted when they met with their acquaintance, kissing became a custom? Or is it for the reason which Aristotle the philosopher hath told us? Even that thing which was commonly reported and said to be done in many places, it seems, was enterprised by the Trojan women in the confines of Italy. For after the men arrived and went ashore, the women set the ships on fire, earnestly longing to be discharged of their roving and seafaring condition; but dreading their husbands’ displeasure, they fell on saluting their kindred and acquaintance that met them, by kissing and embracing; whereupon the husbands’ anger being appeased and they reconciled, they used for the future this kind of compliment towards them. Or rather might this usage be granted to women as a thing that gained them reputation and interest, if they appeared hereby to have many and good kindred and acquaintance? Or was it that, it being unlawful to marry kinswomen, a courteous behavior might proceed so far as a kiss, and this was retained only as a significant sign of kindred and a note of a familiar converse among them? For in former time they did not marry women nigh by blood,— as now they marry not aunts or sisters,—but of late they allowed the marrying of cousins for the following reason. A certain man, mean in estate, but on the other hand an honest and a popular man among the citizens, designed to marry his cousin being an heiress, and to get an estate by her. Upon this account he was accused; but the people took little notice of the accusation, and absolved him of the fault, enacting by vote that it might be lawful for any man to marry so far as cousins, but prohibited it to all higher degrees of consanguinity.

> Greek: 6. διὰ τί τοὺς συγγενεῖς τῷ στόματι φιλοῦσιν αἱ γυναῖκες; πότερον ὡς οἱ πλεῖστοι νομίζουσιν ἀπειρημένον ἦν πίνειν οἶνον ταῖς γυναιξίν, ὅπως οὖν πιοῦσαι μὴ λανθάνωσιν ἀλλʼ ἐλέγχωνται περιτυγχάνουσαι τοῖς οἰκείοις, ἐνομίσθη καταφιλεῖν· ἢ διʼ ἣν Ἀριστοτέλης ὁ φιλόσοφος αἰτίαν ἱστόρηκε; τὸ γὰρ πολυθρύλητον ἐκεῖνο καὶ πολλαχοῦ γενέσθαι λεγόμενον ὡς ἔοικεν ἐτολμήθη καὶ ταῖς Τρῳάσι περὶ τὴν Ἰταλίαν. τῶν γὰρ ἀνδρῶν, ὡς, προσέπλευσαν, ἀποβάντων ἐνέπρησαν τὰ πλοῖα, πάντως ἀπαλλαγῆναι τῆς πλάνης δεόμεναι καὶ τῆς θαλάττης φοβηθεῖσαι δὲ τοὺς ἄνδρας ἠσπάζοντο τῶν συγγενῶν καὶ οἰκείων μετὰ τοῦ καταφιλεῖν καὶ περιπλέκεσθαι τοὺς προστυγχάνοντας. παυσαμένων δὲ τῆς ὀργῆς καὶ διαλλαγέντων, ἐχρῶντο καὶ τοῦ λοιποῦ ταύτῃ τῇ φιλοφροσύνῃ πρὸς αὐτούς. ἢ μᾶλλον ἐδόθη τοῦτο ταῖς γυναιξὶν ὡς τιμὴν ἅμα καὶ δύναμιν αὐταῖς φέρον, εἰ φαίνοιντο πολλοὺς καὶ ἀγαθοὺς ἔχουσαι συγγενεῖς καὶ οἰκείους; ἤ, μὴ νενομισμένου συγγενίδας γαμεῖν, ἄχρι φιλήματος ἡ φιλοφροσύνη προῆλθεν καὶ τοῦτο μόνον ἀπελείφθη σύμβολον καὶ κοινώνημα τῆς συγγενείας; πρότερον γὰρ οὐκ ἐγάμουν τὰς ἀφʼ αἵματος, ὥσπερ οὐδὲ νῦν τηθίδας οὐδʼ ἀδελφὰς γαμοῦσιν, ἀλλʼ ὀψὲ συνεχώρησαν ἀνεψιαῖς συνοικεῖν ἐκ τοιαύτης αἰτίας. ἀνὴρ χρημάτων ἐνδεὴς τὰ δʼ ἄλλα χρηστὸς καὶ παρʼ ὁντινοῦν τῷ δήμῳ τῶν πολιτευομένων ἀρέσκων, ἐπίκληρον ἀνεψιὰν ἔχειν ἔδοξε καὶ πλουτεῖν ἀπʼ αὐτῆς· ἐπὶ τούτῳ δὲ γενομένης αὐτοῦ κατηγορίας, ὁ δῆμος ἀφεὶς τὴν αἰτίαν ἐλέγχειν ἔλυσε τὸ ἔγκλημα, ψηφισάμενος πᾶσιν ἐξεῖναι γαμεῖν ἄχρι ἀνεψιῶν, τὰ δʼ ἀνωτέρω κεκωλῦσθαι.

[¶6] 7. Question 7. Why is a husband forbid to receive a gift from his wife, and a wife from her husband? Solution. What if the reason be as Solon writes it,—describing gifts to be peculiar to dying persons, unless a man being entangled by necessity or wheedled by a woman be enslaved to force which constrains him, or to pleasure which persuades him,—that thus the gifts of husbands and wives became suspected? Or is it that they reputed a gift the basest sign of benevolence (for strangers and they that have no love for us do give us presents), and so took away such a piece of flattery from marriage, that to love and be beloved should be devoid of mercenariness, should be spontaneous and for its own sake, and not for any thing else? Or because women, being corrupted by receiving gifts, are thereby especially brought to admit strangers, did it seem to be a weighty thing to require them to love their own husbands that give them nothing? Or was it because all things ought to be common between them, the husbands’ goods being the wives’, and the wives’ goods the husbands’? For he that accepts that which is given learns thereby to esteem that which is not given the property of another; so that, by giving but a little to each other, they strip each other of all.

> Greek: 7. διὰ τί δὲ δῶρον λαβεῖν ἀνδρὶ παρὰ γυναικὸς καὶ γυναικὶ παρʼ ἀνδρὸς ἀπείρηται πότερον, ὡς Σόλων γράψας τὰς δόσεις κυρίας εἶναι τῶν τελευτώντων, πλὴν εἰ μή τις ἀνάγκῃ συνεχόμενος ἢ γυναικὶ πειθόμενος τὴν μὲν ἀνάγκην ὡς βιαζομένην ὑπεξείλετο, τὴν δʼ ἡδονὴν ὡς παραλογιζομένην, οὕτως ὑπενοήθησαν αἱ γυναικῶν καὶ ἀνδρῶν δόσεις· ἢ φαυλότατον ἡγούμενοι σημεῖον εὐνοίας τὸ διδόναι (διδόασι γὰρ καὶ ἀλλότριοι καὶ μὴ φιλοῦντες ἐκ τοῦ γάμου τὴν τοιαύτην ἀρέσκειαν ἀνεῖλον, ὅπως ἄμισθον ᾖ καὶ προῖκα καὶ διʼ αὑτὸ μὴ διʼ ἄλλο τὸ φιλεῖσθαι καὶ φιλεῖν; ὅτι τῷ λαμβάνειν διαφθειρόμεναι μάλιστα προσίενται τοὺς ἀλλοτρίους, σεμνὸν ἐφάνη τὸ μὴ διδόντες ἀγαπᾶν τοὺς ἰδίους; ἢ μᾶλλον ὅτι δεῖ καὶ γυναιξὶ κοινὰ τὰ ἀνδρῶν εἶναι καὶ ἀνδράσι τὰ γυναικῶν; μανθάνει γὰρ ὁ λαβὼν τὸ δοθὲν ἀλλότριον ἡγεῖσθαι τὸ μὴ δοθέν, ὥστʼ ὀλίγον διδόντες ἀλλήλοις τὸ πᾶν ἀφαιροῦνται.

[¶7] 8. Question 8. Why were they prohibited from taking a gift of a son-in-law or of a father-in-law? Solution. Is it not of a son-in-law, that a man may not seem to convey a gift to his wife by his father’s hands? and of a father-in-law, because it seems just that he that doth not give should not receive?

> Greek: 8. διὰ τί δὲ παρὰ γαμβροῦ καὶ παρὰ πενθεροῦ λαβεῖν ἐκείνοις κεκώλυται δῶρον; ἦ παρὰ γαμβροῦ μέν, ἵνα μὴ δόξῃ διὰ τοῦ πατρὸς εἰς τὴν γυναῖκα περιχωρεῖν τὸ δῶρον· παρὰ πενθεροῦ δέ, ὅτι τὸν μὴ διδόντα δίκαιον ἐφάνη μηδὲ λαμβάνειν;

[¶8] 9. Question 9. Wherefore is it that they that have wives at home, if they be returning out of the country or from any remote parts, do send a messenger before, to acquaint them that they be at hand? Solution. Is not this an argument that a man believes his wife to be no idle gossip, whereas to come upon her suddenly and unexpectedly has a show as though he came hastily to catch her and observe her behavior? Or do they send the good tidings of their coming beforehand, as to them that are desirous of them and expect them? Or rather is it that they desire to enquire concerning their wives whether they are in health, and that they may find them at home looking for them? Or because, when the husbands are wanting, the women have more family concerns and business upon their hands, and there are more dissensions and hurly-burly among those that are within doors; therefore, that the wife may free herself from these things and give a calm and pleasant reception to her husband, she hath forewarning of his coming?

> Greek: 9. διὰ τί, κἂν ἐξ ἀγροῦ κἂν ἀπὸ ξένης ἐπανίωσιν, ἔχοντες οἴκοι γυναῖκας προπέμπουσι δηλοῦντες αὐταῖς ὅτι παραγίγνονται; πότερον ὅτι τοῦτο πιστεύοντός ἐστι τὴν γυναῖκα μηδὲν ῥᾳδιουργεῖν τὸ δʼ ἐξαίφνης καὶ ἀπροσδοκήτως οἷον ἐνέδρα καὶ, παρατήρησις, ἢ σπεύδουσιν ὡς ποθούσαις καὶ προσδεχομέναις εὐαγγελίζεσθαι περὶ αὑτῶν; ἢ μᾶλλον αὐτοὶ περὶ ἐκείνων πυθέσθαι ποθοῦσιν, εἰ σῳζομένας καὶ ποθούσας ἐπὶ τῆς οἰκίας καταλαμβάνουσιν; ἢ πλείονες ταῖς γυναιξὶν οἰκονομίαι καὶ ἀσχολίαι, τῶν ἀνδρῶν ἀπόντων, τυγχάνουσι καὶ διαφοραὶ καὶ ὁρμαὶ πρὸς τοὺς ἔνδον· ἵνʼ οὖν ἀπαλλαγεῖσα τούτων ἀθόρυβον τῷ ἀνδρὶ παρέχῃ τὴν ὑποδοχὴν καὶ ἡδεῖαν, ἡ προδήλωσις γίγνεται;

[¶9] 10. Question 10. Wherefore do men in divine service cover their heads; but if they meet any honorable personages when they have their cloaks on their heads, they are uncovered? Solution. The latter part of the question seems to augment the difficulty of the former. If now the story told of Aeneas be true, that whilst Diomedes was passing by he offered a sacrifice with his head covered, it is rational and consequent that, while we cover our heads before our enemies, when we meet our friends and good men we should be uncovered. This behavior before the Gods therefore is not their peculiar right, but accidental, continuing to be observed since that example of Aeneas. If there is any thing further to be said, consider whether we ought not to enquire only after the reason why men in divine service are covered, the other being the consequence of it. For they that are uncovered before men of greater power do not thereby ascribe honor unto them, but rather remove envy from them, that they might not seem to demand or to endure the same kind of reverence which the Gods have, or to rejoice that they are served in the same manner as they. But they worship the Gods in this manner, either showing their unworthiness in all humility by the covering of the head, or rather fearing that some unlucky and ominous voice should come to them from abroad whilst they are praying; therefore they pluck up their cloaks about their ears. That they strictly observed these things is manifest in this, that when they went to consult the oracle, they made a great din all about by the tinkling of brass kettles. Or is it as Castor saith, that the Roman usages were conformable to the Pythagoric notion that the daemon within us stands in need of the Gods without us, and we make supplication to them with a covered head, intimating the body’s hiding and absconding of the soul?

> Greek: 10. διὰ τί τοὺς θεοὺς προσκυνοῦντες ἐπικαλύπτονται τὴν κεφαλήν, τῶν δʼ ἀνθρώπων τοῖς ἀξίοις τιμῆς ἀπαντῶντες, κἂν τύχωσιν ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἔχοντες τὸ ἱμάτιον, ἀποκαλύπτονται; τοῦτο γὰρ ἔοικε κἀκείνην ἐπιτείνειν τὴν ἀπορίαν. εἰ μὲν οὖν ὁ περὶ Αἰνείου λεγόμενος λόγος ἀληθής ἐστιν, ὅτι τοῦ Διομήδους παρεξιόντος ἐπικαλυψάμενος τὴν θυσίαν ἐπετέλεσε, λόγον ἔχει καὶ ἀκολουθεῖ τῷ συγκαλύπτεσθαι πρὸς τοὺς. πολεμίους τὸ τοῖς φίλοις καὶ ἀγαθοῖς ἐντυγχάνοντας ἀποκαλύπτεσθαι· τὸ γὰρ πρὸς τοὺς θεοὺς οὐκ ἴδιόν ἐστιν ἀλλὰ κατὰ συμβεβηκός, καὶ ἀπʼ ἐκείνου μεμένηκε τηρούμενον. εἰ δʼ ἄλλο τι λέγειν χρή, σκόπει μὴ μόνον ἐκεῖνο δεῖ ζητεῖν, διʼ ὃ τοὺς θεοὺς προσκυνοῦντες ἐπικαλύπτονται θάτερον δʼ ἀκόλουθόν ἐστι. τῶν γὰρ ἀνθρώπων ἀποκαλύπτονται τοῖς δυνατωτέροις, οὐ τιμὴν αὐτοῖς προστιθέντες ἀλλὰ τὸν φθόνον αὐτῶν μᾶλλον ἀφαιροῦντες, ἵνα μὴ δόξωσι τὰς αὐτὰς τοῖς θεοῖς τιμὰς ἀπαιτεῖν μηδʼ ὑπομένειν μηδὲ χαίρειν θεραπευόμενοι παραπλησίως ἐκείνοις. τοὺς δὲ θεοὺς οὕτω προσεκύνουν ἢ ταπεινοῦντες ἑαυτοὺς τῇ ἐπικρύψει τῆς κεφαλῆς, ἢ μᾶλλον εὐλαβούμενοί τινα φωνὴν προσπεσεῖν αὐτοῖς ἔξωθεν εὐχομένοις ἀπαίσιον καὶ δύσφημον ἄχρι τῶν ὤτων ἀνελάμβανον τὸ ἱμάτιον ὅτι γὰρ ἰσχυρῶς ἐφυλάττοντο ταῦτα, δῆλόν ἐστι τῷ προσιόντας ἐπὶ μαντείαν χαλκωμάτων πατάγῳ περιψοφεῖσθαι. ἢ ὡς Κάστωρ λέγει τὰ Ῥωμαϊκὰ τοῖς Πυθαγορικοῖς συνοικειῶν, τὸν ἐν ἡμῖν δαίμονα δεῖσθαι τῶν ἐκτὸς θεῶν καὶ ἱκετεύειν, τῇ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἐπικαλύψει τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς αἰνιττόμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ σώματος ἐγκάλυψιν καὶ ἀπόκρισιν.

[¶10] 11. Question 11. Why do they sacrifice to Saturn with an uncovered head? Solution. Is this the reason, that, whereas Aeneas hath instituted the covering of the head in divine service, Saturn’s sacrifice was much more ancient? Or is it that they are covered before celestial Gods, but reckon Saturn an infernal and terrestrial God? Or is it that nothing of the truth ought to be obscure and darkened, and the Romans repute Saturn to be the father of truth?

> Greek: 11. διὰ τί δὲ τῷ Κρόνῳ θύουσιν ἀπαρακαλύπτῳ τῇ κεφαλῇ; πότερον ὅτι τὴν ἐγκάλυψιν Αἰνείας παρέδωκεν, ἡ δὲ τοῦ Κρόνου θυσία παμπάλαιός ἐστιν· ἢ ὅτι τοῖς οὐρανίοις ἐπικαλύπτονται, τὸν δὲ Κρόνον ἡγοῦνται θεὸν ὑπουδαῖον καὶ χθόνιον; ἢ ὅτι τῆς ἀληθείας οὐδὲν ἐπίκρυφον ἢ ἐπίσκιον, ἀληθείας δὲ νομίζουσι Ῥωμαῖοι πατέρα τὸν Κρόνον εἶναι;

[¶11] 12. Question 12. Why do they esteem Saturn the father of truth? Solution. Is it not the reason that some philosophers believe that Κρόνος (Saturn) is the same with Χρόνος (time), and time finds out truth? Or is it for that which was fabled of Saturn’s age, that it was most just and most likely to participate of truth?

> Greek: 12. διὰ τί δὲ τὸν Κρόνον πατέρα τῆς ἀληθείας νομίζουσι; πότερον, ὥσπερ ἔνιοι τῶν φιλοσόφων, χρόνον οἴονται τὸν Κρόνον εἶναι, τὸ δʼ ἀληθὲς εὑρίσκει χρόνος· ἢ τὸν μυθολογούμενον ἐπὶ Κρόνου βίον, εἰ δικαιότατος ἦν, εἰκός ἐστι μάλιστα μετέχειν ἀληθείας;

[¶12] 13. Question 13. Why do they sacrifice to Honor (a God so-called) with a bare head? Solution. Is it because glory is splendid, illustrious, and unveiled, for which cause men are uncovered before good and honorable persons; and for this reason they thus worship the God that bears the name of honor?

> Greek: 13. διὰ τί καὶ τῷ λεγομένῳ Ὁνώρει θύουσιν ἀπαρακαλύπτῳ τῇ κεφαλῇ (τὸν δὲ Ὁνῶρεμ δόξαν ἂν τις ἢ τιμὴν μεθερμηνεύσειε); πότερον διότι λαμπρὸν ἡ δόξα καὶ περιφανὲς καὶ ἀναπεπταμένον, διʼ ἣν αἰτίαν τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς καὶ τιμωμένοις ἀνδράσιν ἀποκαλύπτονται, διὰ ταύτην καὶ τὸν ἐπώνυμον τῆς τιμῆς θεὸν οὕτω προσκυνοῦσι;

[¶13] 14. Question 14. Why do sons carry forth their parents at funerals with covered heads, but the daughters with uncovered and dishevelled hair? Solution. Is the reason because fathers ought to be honored by their sons as Gods, but be lamented by their daughters as dead, and so the law hath distributed to both their proper part? Or is it that what is not the fashion is fit for mourning? For it is more customary for women to appear publicly with covered heads, and for men with uncovered. Yea, among the Greeks, when any sad calamity befalls them, the women are polled close but the men wear their hair long, because the usual fashion for men is to be polled and for women to wear their hair long. Or was it enacted that sons should be covered, for the reason we have above mentioned (for verily, saith Varro, they surround their fathers’ sepulchres at funerals, reverencing them as the temples of the Gods; and having burnt their parents, when they first meet with a bone, they say the deceased person is deified), but for women was it not lawful to cover their heads at funerals? History now tells us that the first that put away his wife was Spurius Carbilius, by reason of barrenness; the second was Sulpicius Gallus, seeing her pluck up her garments to cover her head; the third was Publius Sempronius, because she looked upon the funeral games.

> Greek: 14. διὰ τί τοὺς γονεῖς ἐκκομίζουσιν οἱ μὲν υἱοὶ συγκεκαλυμμένοι, αἱ δὲ θυγατέρες γυμναῖς ταῖς κεφαλαῖς καὶ ταῖς κόμαις λελυμέναις; πότερον ὅτι τιμᾶσθαι μὲν ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρρένων δεῖ τοὺς πατέρας ὡς θεοὺς πενθεῖσθαι δʼ ὑπὸ τῶν θυγατέρων ὡς τεθνηκότας, ἑκατέρῳ τὸ οἰκεῖον ὁ νόμος ἀποδοὺς ἐξ ἀμφοτέρων ἐποίησε τὸ ἁρμόττον· ἢ πένθους, μὲν οἰκεῖον τὸ μὴ σύνηθες, συνηθέστερον δὲ ταῖς μὲν γυναιξὶν ἐγκεκαλυμμέναις, τοῖς δʼ ἀνδράσιν ἀκαλύπτοις εἰς τὸ δημόσιον προϊέναι; καὶ γὰρ παρʼ Ἕλλησιν ὅταν δυστυχία τις γένηται, κείρονται μὲν αἱ γυναῖκες κομῶσι δʼ οἱ ἄνδρες, ὅτι τοῖς μὲν τὸ κείρεσθαι ταῖς δὲ τὸ κομᾶν σύνηθές ἐστιν. ἢ τοὺς μὲν υἱοὺς ἐπικαλύπτεσθαι διʼ ἣν εἰρήκαμεν αἰτίαν ἐνομίσθη (καὶ γὰρ ἐπὶ τῶν τάφων ὥς φησι Βάρρων περιστρέφονται, καθάπερ θεῶν ἱερὰ τιμῶντες τὰ τῶν πατέρων μνήματα, καὶ καύσαντες τοὺς γονεῖς, ὅταν ὀστέῳ πρῶτον ἐντύχωσι, θεὸν γεγονέναι τὸν τεθνηκότα λέγουσι)· ταῖς δὲ γυναιξὶν οὐδʼ ὅλως ἐξῆν ἐπικαλύπτεσθαι τὴν κεφαλήν; ἱστορεῖται γοῦν ὅτι πρῶτος μὲν ἐξέβαλε γυναῖκα Σπόριος Καρβίλιος ἐπʼ ἀτεκνίᾳ, δεύτερος δὲ Σουλπίκιος Γάλλος ἐφελκυσαμένην ἰδὼν κατὰ κεφαλῆς τὸ ἱμάτιον, τρίτος δὲ Πόπλιος Σεμπρώνιος ἀγῶνα θεωρήσασαν ἐπιτάφιον.

[¶14] 15. Question 15. What is the reason that, esteeming Terminus a God (to whom they offer their Terminalia), they sacrifice no living creature to him? Solution. Was it that Romulus set no bounds to the country, that it might be lawful for a man to make excursions, to rob, and to reckon every part of the country his own (as the Spartan said) wherever he should pitch his spear; but Numa Pompilius, being a just man and a good commonwealthsman and a philosopher, set the boundaries towards the neighboring countries, and dedicated those boundaries to Terminus as the bishop and protector both of friendship and of peace, and it was his opinion that it ought to be preserved pure and undefiled from blood and slaughter?

> Greek: 15. διὰ τί τὸν Τέρμινον, ᾧ τὰ Τερμινάλια ποιοῦσι, θεὸν νομίζοντες οὐδὲν ἔθυον αὐτῷ ζῷον; ἦ Ῥωμύλος μὲν ὅρους οὐκ ἔθηκε τῆς χώρας, ὅπως ἐξῇ προϊέναι καὶ ἀποτέμνεσθαι καὶ νομίζειν πᾶσαν ἰδίαν, ὥσπερ ὁ Λάκων εἶπεν, ἧς ἂν τὸ δόρυ ἐφικνῆται· Νομᾶς δὲ Πομπίλιος, ἀνὴρ δίκαιος καὶ πολιτικὸς ὢν καὶ φιλόσοφος γενόμενος, τήν τε χώραν ὡρίσατο πρὸς τοὺς γειτνιῶντας καὶ τοῖς ὅροις ἐπιφημίσας τὸν Τέρμινον ὡς ἐπίσκοπον καὶ φύλακα φιλίας καὶ εἰρήνης ᾤετο δεῖν αἵματος καὶ φόνου καθαρὸν καὶ ἀμίαντον διαφυλάττειν;

[¶15] 16. Question 16. Why is it that the temple of Matuta is not to be gone into by maid-servants; but the ladies bring in one only, and her they box and cuff? Solution. If to baste this maid be a sign that they ought not to enter, then they prohibit others according to the fable. For Ino, being jealous of her husband’s loving the servant-maid, is reported to have fell outrageously upon her son. The Grecians say the maid was of an Aetolian family, and was called Antiphera. Therefore with us also in Chaeronea the sexton, standing before the temple of Leucothea (Matuta) holding a wand in his hand, makes proclamation that no man-servant nor maid-servant, neither man nor woman Aetolian, should enter in.

> Greek: 16. διὰ τί δούλαις τὸ τῆς Λευκοθέας ἱερὸν ἄβατόν ἐστι, μίαν δὲ μόνην αἱ γυναῖκες εἰσάγουσαι παίουσιν ἐπὶ κόρρης καὶ ῥαπίζουσιν; ἦ τὸ μὲν ταύτην ῥαπίζεσθαι σύμβολόν ἐστι τοῦ μὴ ἐξεῖναι; κωλύουσι δὲ τὰς ἄλλας διὰ τὸν μῦθον. ἡ γὰρ Ἰνὼ ζηλοτυπήσασα δούλην ἐπὶ τῷ ἀνδρὶ λέγεται περὶ τὸν υἱὸν ἐκμανῆναι· τὴν δὲ δούλην Ἕλληνες Αἰτωλίδα γένει φασὶν εἶναι, καλεῖσθαι δʼ Ἀντιφέραν. διὸ καὶ παρʼ ἡμῖν ἐν Χαιρωνείᾳ πρὸ τοῦ σηκοῦ τῆς Λευκοθέας ὁ νεωκόρος λαβὼν μάστιγα κηρύσσει μὴ δοῦλον εἰσιέναι μὴ δούλαν, μὴ Αἰτωλὸν μὴ Αἰτωλάν.

[¶16] 17. Question 17. Why do they not supplicate this Goddess for good things for their own children, but for their brethren’s and sisters’ children? Solution. Was it because Ino was a lover of her sister and nursed up her children, but had hard fortune in her own children? Or otherwise, in that it is a moral and good custom, and makes provision of much benevolence towards relations?

> Greek: 17. διὰ τί παρὰ τῇ θεῷ ταύτῃ τοῖς μὲν ἰδίοις τέκνοις οὐκ εὔχονται τἀγαθὰ τοῖς δὲ τῶν ἀδελφῶν; πότερον ὅτι φιλάδελφος μέν τις ἡ Ἰνὼ καὶ τὸν ἐκ τῆς ἀδελφῆς ἐτιθηνήσατο, ἡ δὲ περὶ τοὺς ἑαυτῆς παῖδας ἐδυστύχησεν ἢ καὶ ἄλλως ἠθικὸν καὶ καλὸν τὸ ἔθος καὶ πολλὴν παρασκευάζον εὔνοιαν ταῖς οἰκειότησι;

[¶17] 18. Question 18. Why do many of the richer sort pay tithe of their estates to Hercules? Solution. Is this the reason, that Hercules sacrificed the tenth part of Geryon’s oxen at Rome? Or that he freed the Romans from the decimation under the Etrurians? Or that these things have no sufficient ground of credit from history, but that they sacrificed bountifully to Hercules, as to a certain monstrous glutton and gormandizer of good cheer? Or did they rather do it, restraining extravagant riches as a nuisance to the commonwealth, as it were to diminish something of that thriving constitution that grows up to the highest pitch of corpulency; being of opinion that Hercules was most of all honored with and rejoiced in these frugalities and contractions of abundance, and that he himself was frugal, content with a little, and every way sparing in his way of living?

> Greek: 18. διὰ τί τῷ Ἡρακλεῖ πολλοὶ τῶν πλουσίων ἐδεκάτευον τὰς οὐσίας; πότερον ὅτι κἀκεῖνος ἐν Ῥώμῃ τῶν Γηρυόνου βοῶν ἀπέθυσε τὴν δεκάτην, ἢ ὅτι Ῥωμαίους ὑπὸ Τυρρηνῶν δεκατευομένους ἀπήλλαξεν; ἢ ταῦτα μὲν οὐκ εἶχε τὴν ἱστορίαν ἀξιόπιστον ὡς δʼ ἀδηφάγῳ τινὶ τῷ Ἡρακλεῖ καὶ εὐθοίνῳ δαψιλῶς καὶ ἀφθόνως ἀπέθυον; ἢ μᾶλλον ὡς ἐπαχθῆ τοῖς πολίταις τὸν ὑπερβάλλοντα πλοῦτον κολούοντες καὶ καθάπερ εὐεξίας ἐπʼ ἄκρον εὐσωματούσης ἀφαιροῦντες, ᾤοντο μάλιστα τιμᾶσθαι τὸν Ἡρακλέα καὶ χαίρειν ταῖς τοιαύταις ἀποχρήσεσι καὶ συστολαῖς τῶν περιττῶν, εὐτελῆ καὶ αὐτάρκη καὶ ἀπέριττον τῷ βίῳ γενόμενον;

[¶18] 19. Question 19. Why do they take the month of January for the beginning of the new year? Solution. Anciently March was reckoned the first, as is plain by many other marks and especially by this, that the fifth month from March was called Quintilis, and the sixth Sextilis, and so forward to the last. December was so called, being reckoned the tenth from March; hence it came to pass that some are of opinion and do affirm that the Romans formerly did not complete the year with twelve months, but with ten only, allotting to some of the months above thirty days. But others give us an account that, as December is the tenth from March, January is the eleventh and February the twelfth; in which month they use purifications, and perform funeral rites for the deceased upon the finishing of the year; but this order of the months being changed, they now make January the first, because on the first day of this month (which day they call the Kalends of January) the first consuls were constituted, the kings being deposed. But some speak with a greater probability, which say that Romulus, being a warlike and martial man and reputing himself the son of Mars, set March in the front of all the months, and named it from Mars; but Numa again, being a peaceable prince and ambitious to bring off the citizens from warlike achievements, set them upon husbandry, gave the pre-eminence to January, and brought Janus into a great reputation, as he was more addicted to civil government and husbandry than to warlike affairs. Now consider whether Numa hath not pitched upon a beginning of the year most suitable to our natural disposition. For there is nothing at all in the whole circumvolution of things naturally first or last, but by law or custom some appoint one beginning of time, some another; but they do best who take this beginning from after the winter solstice, when the sun, ceasing to make any further progress, returns and converts his course again to us. For there is then a kind of tropic in nature itself, which verily increaseth the time of light to us and shortens the time of darkness, and makes the Lord and Ruler of the. whole current of nature to approach nearer to us.

> Greek: 19. διὰ τί τὸν Ἰανουάριον μῆνα νέου ἔτους ἀρχὴν λαμβάνουσι; τὸ γὰρ παλαιὸν ὁ Μάρτιος ἠριθμεῖτο πρότερος, ὡς ἄλλοις τε πολλοῖς δῆλόν ἐστι τεκμηρίοις καὶ μάλιστα τῷ τὸν πέμπτον ἀπὸ τοῦ Μαρτίου πέμπτον καὶ τὸν ἕκτον ἕκτον ὀνομάζεσθαι, καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ἐφεξῆς ἄχρι τοῦ τελευταίου, ὃν Δεκέμβριον καλοῦσιν ἀπὸ τοῦ Μαρτίου δέκατον ἀριθμούμενον. ἐξ οὗ δὴ καὶ παρέστη τισὶν οἴεσθαι καὶ λέγειν, ὡς οὐ δώδεκα μησὶν ἀλλὰ δέκα συνεπλήρουν οἱ τότε Ῥωμαῖοι τὸν ἐνιαυτὸν ἐνίοις τῶν μηνῶν ἡμέρας πλείονας τῶν τριάκοντα προστιθέντες ἄλλοι δʼ ἱστοροῦσι τὸν μὲν Δεκέμβριον ἀπὸ τοῦ Μαρτίου δέκατον εἶναι, τὸν δʼ Ἰανουάριον ἑνδέκατον, τὸν δὲ Φεβρουάριον δωδέκατον, ἐν ᾧ καθαρμοῖς τε χρῶνται καὶ τοῖς φθιμένοις ἐναγίζουσι τοῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ τελευτῶντος. μετατεθῆναι δὲ τούτους καὶ γενέσθαι τὸν Ἰανουάριον πρῶτον, ὅτι τῇ νουμηνίᾳ τούτου τοῦ μηνός, ἣν ἡμέραν καλάνδας Ἰανουαρίας καλοῦσιν, οἱ πρῶτοι κατεστάθησαν ὕπατοι, τῶν βασιλέων ἐκπεσόντων. πιθανώτεροι δʼ εἰσὶν οἱ λέγοντες, ὅτι τὸν μὲν Μάρτιον ὁ Ῥωμύλος πολεμικὸς καὶ ἀρειμάνιος ὢν καὶ δοκῶν ἐξ Ἄρεος γεγονέναι προέταξε τῶν μηνῶν, ἐπώνυμον ὄντα τοῦ Ἄρεος· Νομᾶς δʼ αὖθις εἰρηνικὸς γενόμενος καὶ πρὸς ἔργα τῆς γῆς φιλοτιμούμενος τρέψαι τὴν πόλιν ἀποστῆσαι δὲ τῶν πολεμικῶν, τῷ Ἰανουαρίῳ τὴν ἡγεμονίαν ἔδωκε καὶ τὸν Ἰανὸν εἰς τιμὰς προήγαγε μεγάλας, ὡς πολιτικὸν καὶ γεωργικὸν μᾶλλον ἢ πολεμικὸν γενόμενον. ὅρα δὲ μὴ μᾶλλον ὁ Νομᾶς τῇ φύσει προσήκουσαν ἀρχὴν ἔλαβε τοῦ ἔτους ὡς πρὸς ἡμᾶς. καθόλου μὲν γὰρ οὐδέν ἐστι φύσει τῶν ἐν κύκλῳ περιφερομένων οὔτʼ ἔσχατον οὔτε πρῶτον, νόμῳ δʼ ἄλλην ἄλλοι τοῦ χρόνου λαμβάνουσιν ἀρχήν· ἄριστα δʼ οἱ τὴν μετὰ τροπὰς χειμερινὰς λαμβάνοντες, ὁπηνίκα τοῦ πρόσω βαδίζειν πεπαυμένος ὁ ἥλιος ἐπιστρέφει καὶ ἀνακάμπτει πάλιν πρὸς ἡμᾶς· γίγνεται γὰρ αὐτοῖς τρόπον τινὰ καὶ φύσει, τὸν μὲν τοῦ φωτὸς αὔξουσα χρόνον ἡμῖν, μειοῦσα δὲ τὸν τοῦ σκότους, ἐγγυτέρω δὲ ποιοῦσα τὸν κύριον καὶ ἡγεμόνα τῆς ῥευστῆς οὐσίας ἁπάσης.

[¶19] 20. Question 20. When the women beautify the temple of the Goddess appropriate to women, which they call Bona, why do they bring no myrtle into the house, although they be zealous of using all budding and flowering vegetables? Solution. Is not the reason (as the fabulous write the story) this, that the wife of Faulius a diviner, having drunk wine secretly and being discovered, was whipped by her husband with myrtle rods; hence the women bring in no myrtle, but offer to her a drink-offering of wine, which they call milk? Or is it this, that, as they abstain from many things, so especially they reserve themselves chaste from all things that appertain to venery when they perform that divine service; for they do not only turn their husbands out of doors but banish from the house every male kind, when they exercise this canonical obedience to their Goddess. They therefore reject myrtle as an abomination, it being consecrated to Venus; and the Venus whom at this day they call Murcia they anciently called Myrtia, as it would seem.

> Greek: 20. διὰ τί τῇ γυναικείᾳ θεῷ, ἣν Ἀγαθὴν καλοῦσιν, κοσμοῦσαι σηκὸν αἱ γυναῖκες οἴκοι μυρσίνας οὐκ εἰσφέρουσι, καίτοι πᾶσι φιλοτιμούμεναι χρῆσθαι τοῖς βλαστάνουσι καὶ ἀνθοῦσι; πότερον ὡς οἱ μυθολογοῦντες ἱστοροῦσι Φαύνου μὲν ἦν γυνὴ τοῦ μάντεως, οἴνῳ δὲ χρησαμένη κρύφα καὶ μὴ λαθοῦσα ῥάβδοις ὑπὸ τοῦ ἀνδρὸς ἐκολάσθη μυρσίνης (ὅθεν μυρσίνην μὲν οὐκ εἰσφέρουσιν, οἶνον δʼ αὐτῇ σπένδουσι, γάλα προσαγορεύουσαι)· ἢ πολλῶν μὲν ἁγναὶ μάλιστα δʼ ἀφροδισίων τὴν ἱερουργίαν ἐκείνην ἐπιτελοῦσιν; οὐ γὰρ μόνον ἐξοικίζουσι τοὺς ἄνδρας, ἀλλὰ καὶ πᾶν ἄρρεν ἐξελαύνουσι τῆς οἰκίας, ὅταν τὰ νενομισμένα τῇ θεῷ ποιῶσι. τὴν οὖν μυρσίνην ὡς ἱερὰν Ἀφροδίτης ἀφοσιοῦνται· καὶ γὰρ ἣν νῦν Μουρκίαν Ἀφροδίτην καλοῦσι, Μυρτίαν τὸ παλαιὸν ὡς ἔοικεν ὠνόμαζον.

[¶20] 21. Question 21. Why do the Latins worship a woodpecker, and all of them abstain strictly front this bird? Solution. Is it because one Picus by the enchantments of his wife transformed himself, and becoming a woodpecker uttered oracles, and gave oraculous answers to them that enquired? Or, if this be altogether incredible and monstrous, there is another of the romantic stories more probable, about Romulus and Remus, when they were exposed in the open field, that not only a she-wolf gave them suck, but a certain woodpecker flying to them fed them; for even now it is very usual that in meads and groves where a woodpecker is found there is also a wolf, as Nigidius writes. Or rather, as they deem other birds sacred to various Gods, so do they deem this sacred to Mars? For it is a daring and fierce bird, and hath so strong a beak as to drill an oak to the heart by pecking, and cause it to fall.

> Greek: 21. διὰ τί τὸν δρυοκολάπτην οἱ Λατῖνοι σέβονται, καὶ ἀπέχονται πάντες ἰσχυρῶς τοῦ ὄρνιθος; πότερον ὅτι τὸν Πῖκον λέγουσιν ὑπὸ φαρμάκων τῆς γυναικὸς μεταβαλεῖν τὴν φύσιν καὶ γενόμενον δρυοκολάπτην ἀποφθέγγεσθαι λόγια καὶ χρησμῳδεῖν τοῖς ἐρωτῶσιν· ἢ τοῦτο μὲν ἄπιστόν ἐστιν ὅλως καὶ τερατῶδες, ἅτερος δὲ τῶν μύθων πιθανώτερος, ὡς ἄρα τοῖς περὶ Ῥωμύλον καὶ Ῥῶμον ἐκτεθεῖσιν οὐ μόνον λύκαινα θηλὴν ἐπεῖχεν, ἀλλὰ καὶ δρυοκολάπτης τις ἐπιφοιτῶν ἐψώμιζεν; ἐπιεικῶς γὰρ ἔτι καὶ νῦν τοῖς ὑπορείοις καὶ δρυμώδεσι τόποις ὅπου φαίνεται δρυοκολάπτης, ἐκεῖ καὶ λύκος, ὡς Νιγίδιος ἱστορεῖ. ἢ μᾶλλον, ὡς ἄλλον ἄλλου θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦτον Ἄρεος ἱερὸν νομίζουσι τὸν ὄρνιν; καὶ γὰρ εὐθαρσὴς καὶ γαῦρός ἐστι καὶ τὸ ῥύγχος οὕτως ἔχει κραταιόν, ὥστε δρῦς ἀνατρέπειν, ὅταν κόπτων πρὸς τὴν ἐντεριώνην ἐξίκηται.

[¶21] 22. Question 22. Why are they of opinion that Janus was double-faced, and do describe and paint him so? Solution. Was it because he was a native Greek of Perrhaebia (as they story it), and going down into Italy and cohabiting with the barbarians of the country, changed his language and way of living? Or rather because he persuaded those people of Italy that were savage and lawless to a civil life, in that he converted them to husbandry and formed them into commonwealths?

> Greek: 22. διὰ τί τὸν Ἰανὸν διπρόσωπον οἴονται γεγονέναι καὶ γράφουσιν οὕτω καὶ πλάττουσιν; πότερον ὅτι τῷ μὲν γένει Ἕλλην ἐκ Περραιβίας ἦν, ὡς ἱστοροῦσιν, διαβὰς δʼ εἰς Ἰταλίαν καὶ συνοικήσας τοῖς αὐτόθι βαρβάροις μετέβαλε καὶ γλῶτταν καὶ δίαιταν ἢ μᾶλλον ὅτι τοὺς περὶ τὴν Ἰταλίαν αὐτὸς ἀγρίοις καὶ ἀνόμοις χρωμένους ἔθεσιν εἰς ἕτερον βίου σχῆμα, πείσας γεωργεῖν καὶ πολιτεύεσθαι, μετέβαλε καὶ μετεκόσμησε;

[¶22] 23. Question 23. Why do they sell things which pertain to funerals in the temple of Libitina, seeing they are of opinion that Libitina is Venus? Solution. Was it that this was one of the wise institutions of King Numa, that they might learn not to esteem these things irksome nor fly from them as a defilement? Or rather is it to put us in mind that whatever is born must die, there being one Goddess that presides over them that are born and those that die? And at Delphi there is the statue of Venus Epitymbia (on a tomb), to which at their drink-offerings they call forth the ghosts of the deceased.

> Greek: 23. διὰ τί τὰ πρὸς τὰς ταφὰς πιπράσκουσιν ἐν τῷ τεμένει τῷ Λιβιτίνης, νομίζοντες Ἀφροδίτην εἶναι τὴν Λιβιτίνην; πότερον καὶ τοῦτο τῶν Νομᾶ τοῦ βασιλέως φιλοσοφημάτων ἕν ἐστιν, ὅπως μανθάνωσι μὴ δυσχεραίνειν τὰ τοιαῦτα μηδὲ φεύγειν ὡς μιασμόν ἢ μᾶλλον ὑπόμνησίς ἐστι τοῦ φθαρτὸν εἶναι τὸ γεννητόν, ὡς μιᾶς θεοῦ τὰς γενέσεις καὶ τὰς τελευτὰς ἐπισκοπούσης; καὶ γὰρ ἐν Δελφοῖς Ἀφροδίτης ἐπιτυμβίας ἀγαλμάτιόν ἐστι πρὸς ὃ τοὺς κατοιχομένους ἐπὶ τὰς χοὰς ἀνακαλοῦνται.

[¶23] 24. Question 24. Why have they three beginnings and appointed periods in the months which have not the same interval of days between? Solution. What if it be this (as Juba writes), that on the Kalends the magistrates called (καλεῖν) the people, and proclaimed the Nones for the fifth, while the Ides they esteemed an holy day? Or rather that they who define time by the variations of the moon have observed that the moon comes under three greatest variations monthly; the first is when it is obscured, making a conjunction with the sun; the second is when it gets out of the rays of the sun and makes her first appearance after the sun is down; the third is at her fulness, when it is full moon. They call her disappearance and obscurity the Kalends, for every thing hid and privy they call clam, and celare is to hide. The first appearance they call the Nones, by a most fit notation of names, it being the new moon (novilunium); for they call it new moon as we do. Ides are so called either by reason of the fairness and clear form (εἶδος) of the moon standing forth in her complete splendor, or from the name of Jupiter (Διός). But in this matter we are not to search for the exact number of days, nor to abuse this approximate mode of reckoning; seeing that even at this day, when the science of astronomy has made so great increase, the inequality of the motion and course of the moon surpasseth all experience of mathematicians and cannot be reduced to any certain rule of reason.

> Greek: 24. διὰ τί τρεῖς τοῦ μηνὸς ἀρχὰς καὶ προθεσμίας ἔχουσιν, οὐ ταὐτὸ διάστημα τῶν ἡμερῶν μεταξὺ λαμβάνοντες; πότερον ὡς οἱ περὶ τὸν Ἰόβαν ἱστοροῦσιν ὅτι ταῖς καλάνδαις ἐκάλουν τὸν δῆμον οἱ ἄρχοντες καὶ κατήγγελλον εἰς πέμπτην τὰς νόννας, εἰδοὺς δʼ ἡμέραν ἱερὰν ἐνόμιζον· ἢ μᾶλλον ὅτι ταῖς τῆς σελήνης διαφοραῖς ὁρίζοντες τὸν χρόνον, ἑώρων ἐν τρισὶ γιγνομένην διαφοραῖς τὴν σελήνην κατὰ μῆνα ταῖς μεγίσταις, πρώτῃ μὲν ὅτε κρύπτεται σύνοδον ποιησαμένη πρὸς ἥλιον, δευτέρᾳ δʼ ὅταν ἐκφυγοῦσα τὰς αὐγὰς τοῦ ἡλίου καταφανὴς πρῶτον ἐπὶ δυσμῶν γένηται, τρίτῃ δὲ τῇ περὶ τὴν πλήρωσιν αὐτῆς πανσελήνου γενομένης; ὀνομάζουσι δὲ τὸν μὲν ἀφανισμὸν αὐτῆς καὶ τὴν κρύψιν καλάνδας, ὅτι πᾶν τὸ κρύφα καὶ λάθρα κλάμ καὶ κηλᾶρε τὸ λανθάνειν· τὴν δὲ πρώτην φάσιν νόννας τῷ δικαιοτάτῳ τῶν ὀνομάτων, νουμηνίαν οὖσαν· καὶ γὰρ αὐτοὶ τὸ νέον καὶ καινὸν ὥσπερ ἡμεῖς προσαγορεύουσι· τὰς δʼ εἰδούς ἢ διὰ τὸ κάλλος καὶ τὸ εἶδος ὁλοκλήρου καθισταμένης τῆς σελήνης ἢ τῷ Διὶ τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν ἀποδιδόντες. οὐ δεῖ δὲ τῶν ἡμερῶν τὸν ἀκριβέστατον ἀριθμὸν διώκειν οὐδὲ τῷ παρʼ ὀλίγον συκοφαντεῖν, ὅπου καὶ νῦν ἐπίδοσιν τοσαύτην ἀστρολογίας ἐχούσης, περιγίγνεται τῆς ἐμ πειρίας τῶν μαθηματικῶν ἡ τῆς κινήσεως ἀνωμαλία διαφεύγουσα τὸν λόγον.

[¶24] 25. Question 25. Why do they determine that the days after the Kalends, Nones, and Ides are unfit to travel or go a long journey in? Solution. Was it (as most men think, and Livy tells us) because on the next day after the Ides of Quintilis (which they now call July), the tribunes of the soldiery marching forth, the army was conquered by the Gauls in a battle about the river Allia and lost the city, whereupon this day was reckoned unlucky; and superstition (as it loves to do) extended this observation further, and subjected the next days after the Nones and Kalends to the same scrupulosity? Or what if this notion meet with much contradiction? For it was on another day they were defeated in battle, which they call Alliensis (from the river) and greatly abominate as unsuccessful; and whereas there be many unlucky days, they do not observe them in all the months alike, but every one in the month it happens in, and it is most improbable that all the next days after the Nones and Kalends simply considered should contract this superstition. Consider now whether—as they consecrated the first of the months to the Olympic Gods, and the second to the infernals, wherein they solemnize some purifications and funeral rites to the ghosts of the deceased— they have so constituted the three which have been spoken of, as it were, the chief and principal days for festival and holy days, designating the next following these to daemons and deceased persons, which days they esteemed unfortunate and unfit for action. And also the Grecians, worshipping their Gods at the new of the moon, dedicated the next day to heroes and daemons, and the second of the cups was mingled on the behalf of the male and female heroes. Moreover, time is altogether a number; and unity, which is the foundation of a number, is of a divine nature. The number next is two, opposite to the first, and is the first of even numbers. But an even number is defective, imperfect, and indefinite; as again an odd number is determinate, definite, and complete. Therefore the Nones succeed the Kalends on the fifth day, the Ides follow the Nones on the ninth, for odd numbers do determine the beginnings. But those even numbers which are next after the beginnings have not that pre-eminence nor influence; hence on such days they take not any actions or journey in hand. Wherefore that of Themistocles hath reason in it. “The Day after the feast contended with the Feast-day, saying that the Feast-day had much labor and toil, but she (the Day after the feast) afforded the fruition of the provision made for the Feast-day, with much leisure and quietness. The Feast-day answered after this wise: Thou speakest truth; but if I had not been, neither hadst thou been.” These things spake Themistocles to the Athenian officers of the army, who succeeded him, signifying that they could never have made any figure in the world had not he saved the city. Since therefore every action and journey worth our diligent management requires necessary provision and preparation, but the Romans of old made no family provision on feast-days, nor were careful for any thing but that they might attend divine service,—and this they did with all their might, as even now the priests enjoin them in their proclamations when they proceed to the sacrifices,— in like manner they did not rush presently after their festival solemnities upon a journey or any enterprise (because they were unprovided), but finished that day in contriving domestic affairs and fitting themselves for the intended occasion abroad. And as even at this day, after they have said their prayers and finished their devotion, they are wont to stay and sit still in the temples, so they did not join working days immediately to holy days, but made some interval and distance between them, secular affairs bringing many troubles and distractions along with them.

> Greek: 25. διὰ τί τὴν μετὰ καλάνδας ἡμέραν καὶ νόννας καὶ εἰδοὺς ἀνέξοδον καὶ ἀνεκδήμητον τίθενται; πότερον, ὡς οἱ πλεῖστοι νομίζουσι καὶ Λίβιος ἱστορεῖ, ὅτι μετὰ τὰς Κυιντιλίας εἰδούς, ἃς νῦν Ἰουλίας καλοῦσιν, ἐξάγοντες οἱ χιλίαρχοι τὸ στράτευμα περὶ τὸν Ἀλλίαν ποταμὸν ἐκρατήθησαν ὑπὸ Κελτῶν μάχῃ καὶ τὴν πόλιν ἀπώλεσαν νομισθείσης δὲ τῆς μετὰ τὰς εἰδοὺς ἀποφράδος προήγαγεν ὥσπερ φιλεῖ πορρωτέρω τὸ ἔθος ἡ δεισιδαιμονία καὶ κατέστησεν εἰς τὴν αὐτὴν εὐλάβειαν τήν τε μετὰ νόννας καὶ τὴν μετὰ καλάνδας· ἢ τοῦτο μὲν ἔχει πολλὰς ἀλογίας; ἄλλῃ τε γὰρ ἡμέρᾳ τὴν μάχην ἡττήθησαν, ἣν Ἀλλιάδα διὰ τὸν ποταμὸν καλοῦντες ἀφοσιοῦνται, καὶ πολλῶν ἀποφράδων οὐσῶν οὐκ ἐν παντὶ μηνὶ τὰς ὁμωνύμους παραφυλάττουσιν, ἀλλʼ ἑκάστην ἐν ᾧ συνέτυχε· τό τε ταῖς μετὰ νόννας καὶ καλάνδας ἁπλῶς ἁπάσαις προστρίψασθαι τὴν δεισιδαιμονίαν ἀπιθανώτατον. ὅρα δὴ μή, καθάπερ τῶν μηνῶν τὸν μὲν πρῶτον ὀλυμπίοις θεοῖς ἱέρωσαν, τὸν δὲ δεύτερον χθονίοις ἐν ᾧ καὶ καθαρμούς τινας τελοῦσι καὶ τοῖς κατοιχομένοις ἐναγίζουσιν, οὕτω καὶ τῶν ἡμερῶν τὰς μὲν οἷον ἀρχὰς καὶ κυρίας ὥσπερ εἴρηται τρεῖς οὔσας ἑορτασίμους καὶ ἱερὰς ἔθεντο, τὰς δʼ ἐφεξῆς δαίμοσι καὶ φθιτοῖς ἐπιφημίσαντες ἀποφράδας καὶ ἀπράκτους ἐνόμισαν. καὶ γὰρ Ἕλληνες ἐν τῇ νουμηνίᾳ τοὺς θεοὺς σεβόμενοι, τὴν δευτέραν ἥρωσι καὶ δαίμοσιν ἀποδεδώκασι καὶ τῶν κρατήρων ὁ δεύτερος ἥρωσιν ἐπικίρναται καὶ ἡρωίσι. καὶ ὅλως ἀριθμός τις ὁ χρόνος, ἀριθμοῦ δὲ θεῖον ἡ ἀρχή· μονὰς γάρ ἐστιν. ἡ δὲ μετʼ αὐτὴν δυὰς ἀντίπαλος τῇ ἀρχῇ καὶ ἀρτίων πρώτη. τὸ δʼ ἄρτιον ἐνδεὲς καὶ ἀτελὲς καὶ ἀόριστον, ὥσπερ αὖ τὸ περιττὸν ὥρισται καὶ περαίνει καὶ τέλειόν ἐστι. διὸ καὶ νόνναι μὲν ἐπιβάλλουσι διὰ πέμπτης καλάνδαις, νόνναις δʼ εἰδοὶ διʼ ἐνάτης. ὁρίζουσι γὰρ οἱ περισσοὶ τὰς ἀρχάς· οἱ δὲ μετὰ τὰς ἀρχὰς ἄρτιοι ὄντες οὐκ ἔχουσι τάξιν οὐδὲ δύναμιν, ὅθεν οὐκ ἄρχονται πράξεως οὐδʼ ἀποδημίας ἐν ταύταις. ἢ καὶ τὸ τοῦ Θεμιστοκλέους ἔχει λόγον, ἐρίσαι ποτὲ τὴν ὑστεραίαν πρὸς τὴν ἑορτήν, ἐκείνης μὲν ἀσχολίαν καὶ κόπον ἐχούσης πολύν, αὐτὴ δὲ παρέχουσα μετὰ σχολῆς καὶ ἡσυχίας ἀπολαῦσαι τῶν παρεσκευασμένων πρὸς τὴν ἑορτήν· ἀποκρίνασθαι δὲ πρὸς ταῦτα τὴν ἑορτὴν ἀληθῆ λέγεις, ἀλλʼ ἐμοῦ μὴ γενομένης οὐδʼ ἂν σὺ ἦς; ταῦτα δʼ ὁ Θεμιστοκλῆς πρὸς τοὺς αὖθις ἔλεγε στρατηγοὺς τῶν Ἀθηναίων ὡς οὐκ ἂν οὐδαμοῦ φανέντας, εἰ μὴ τὴν πόλιν αὐτὸς ἔσῳσεν. ἐπεὶ τοίνυν πᾶσα μὲν ἀξία σπουδῆς ἀποδημία καὶ πρᾶξις οἰκονομίας δεῖται καὶ παρασκευῆς, Ῥωμαῖοι δὲ τὸ παλαιὸν ἐν ταῖς ἑορταῖς οὐδὲν ᾠκονόμουν οὐδʼ ἐφρόντιζον ἀλλʼ ἢ περὶ τοὺς θεοὺς ἠσχολοῦντο καὶ τοῦτʼ ἔπραττον, ὥσπερ ἔτι νῦν προκηρύττουσιν οἱ ἱερεῖς ἐπὶ τὰς θυσίας βαδίζοντες, εἰκότως εὐθὺς οὐκ ἐξεδήμουν μετὰ τὰς ἑορτὰς οὐδʼ ἔπραττον (ἀπαράσκευοι γὰρ ἦσαν), ἀλλʼ ἐκφροντίζοντες οἴκοι καὶ παρασκευαζόμενοι τὴν ἡμέραν ἐκείνην διετέλουν. ἢ καθάπερ ἔτι νῦν προσευξάμενοι καὶ προσκυνήσαντες ἐν τοῖς ἱεροῖς ἐπιμένειν καὶ καθίζειν εἰώθασιν, οὕτως οὐκ εὐθὺς ἐπέβαλλον ταῖς ἱεραῖς ἡμέραις τὰς ἐνεργούς, ἀλλʼ ἐποίουν τι διάλειμμα καὶ διάστημα, πολλὰ τῶν πραγμάτων δυσχερῆ καὶ ἀβούλητα φερόντων;

[¶25] 26. Question 26. Why do women wear for mourning white mantles and white kerchiefs? Solution. What if they do this in conformity to the Magi, who, as they say, standing in defiance of death and darkness, do fortify themselves with bright and splendid robes? Or, as the dead corpse is wrapped in white, so do they judge it meet that the relations should be conformable thereto? For they beautify the body so, since they cannot the soul; wherefore they wish to follow it as having gone before, pure and white, being dismissed after it hath fought a great and various warfare. Or is it that what is very mean and plain is most becoming in these things? For garments dyed of a color argue either luxury or vanity. Neither may we say less of black than of sea-green or purple, “Verily garments are deceitful, and so are colors.” And a thing that is naturally black is not dyed by art but by nature, and is blended with an intermixed shade. It is white only therefore that is sincere, unmixed, free from the impurity of a dye, and inimitable; therefore most proper to those that are buried. For one that is dead is become simple, unmixed, and pure, freed from the body no otherwise than from a tingeing poison. In Argos they wear white in mourning, as Socrates saith, vestments rinsed in water.

> Greek: 26. διὰ τί λευκὰ φοροῦσιν ἐν τοῖς πένθεσιν αἱ γυναῖκες ἱμάτια καὶ λευκοὺς κεκρυφάλους; πότερον ὡς τοὺς μάγους φασὶν πρὸς τὸν ᾍδην καὶ τὸ σκότος ἀντιταττομένους, τῷ δὲ φωτεινῷ καὶ λαμπρῷ συνεξομοιοῦντας ἑαυτοὺς τοῦτο ποιεῖν· ἤ, καθάπερ τὸ σῶμα τοῦ τεθνηκότος ἀμφιεννύουσι λευκοῖς, καὶ τοὺς προσήκοντας ἀξιοῦσι; τὸ δὲ σῶμα κοσμοῦσιν οὕτως, ἐπεὶ μὴ δύνανται τὴν ψυχήν· βούλονται δʼ ἐκείνην λαμπρὰν καὶ καθαρὰν προπέμπειν, ὡς ἀφειμένην ἤδη καὶ διηγωνισμένην μέγαν ἀγῶνα καὶ ποικίλον. ἢ τὸ μὲν λιτὸν ἐν τούτοις μάλιστα καὶ τὸ ἁπλοῦν πρέπει; τῶν δὲ βαπτῶν τὰ μὲν καὶ πολυτέλειαν ἐμφαίνει τὰ δὲ περιεργίαν οὐ γὰρ ἧττον ἔστι πρὸς τὸ μέλαν ἢ τὸ ἁλουργὸν εἰπεῖν δολερὰ μὲν τὰ εἵματα, δολερὰ δὲ τὰ χρώματα τὸ δʼ αὐτόχρουν μέλαν οὐχ ὑπὸ τέχνης ἀλλὰ φύσει βαπτόν ἐστι, καὶ μεμιγμένον τῷ σκιώδει κεκράτηται. μόνον οὖν τὸ λευκὸν εἰλικρινὲς καὶ ἀμιγὲς καὶ ἀμίαντόν ἐστι βαφῇ καὶ ἀμίμητον· οἰκειότατον οὖν τοῖς θαπτομένοις. καὶ γὰρ ὁ τεθνηκὼς ἁπλοῦν τι γέγονε καὶ ἀμιγὲς καὶ καθαρὸν ἀτεχνῶς οὐδὲν ἀλλʼ ἢ φαρμάκου δευσοποιοῦ τοῦ σώματος ἀπηλλαγμένος. ἐν δʼ Ἄργει λευκὰ φοροῦσιν ἐν τοῖς πένθεσιν, ὡς Σωκράτης φησίν, ὑδατόκλυστα.