---
title: "Opinions of the Philosophers · Περὶ τῶν ἀρεσκόντων φιλοσόφοις"
author: "Pseudo-Plutarch"
translator: "John Dowell, rev. William W. Goodwin"
languages: [grc, en]
shelf: "Philosophy"
url: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/
cite: "Pseudo-Plutarch, tr. John Dowell, rev. William W. Goodwin, Opinions of the Philosophers · Περὶ τῶν ἀρεσκόντων φιλοσόφοις. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/"
---

# Opinions of the Philosophers · Περὶ τῶν ἀρεσκόντων φιλοσόφοις

*Pseudo-Plutarch, tr. John Dowell, rev. William W. Goodwin*

A summary of what the Greek philosophers thought about first principles, the gods, the heavens, the earth, the soul and the senses.

> Greek: ed. Grēgorios N. Vernardakēs, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-greekLit, tlg0094.tlg003, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: John Dowell, rev. William W. Goodwin, from the Perseus Digital Library (tlg0094.tlg003.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## Contents

1. [Book I · chapters 1–6](https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/1.md)
2. [Book I · chapters 7–30](https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/2.md)
3. [Book II](https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/3.md)
4. [Book III](https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/4.md)
5. [Book IV](https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/5.md)
6. [Book V](https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/6.md)

## 1. Book I · chapters 1–6

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/1/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/1/#p-N

[¶0] 0. IT being our determination to discourse of Natural Philosophy, we judge it necessary, in the first place and chiefly, to divide the body of philosophy into its proper members, that we may know what is that which is called philosophy, and what part of it is physical, or the explanation of natural things. The Stoics affirm that wisdom is the knowledge of things human and divine; that philosophy is the exercise of that art which is expedient to this knowledge; that virtue is the sole and sovereign art which is thus expedient; and this distributes itself into three general parts, —natural, moral, and logical. By which just reason (they say) philosophy is tripartite; of which one is natural, the other moral, the third logical. The natural is when our enquiries are concerning the world and all things contained in it; the ethical is the employment of our minds in those things which concern the manners of man’s life; the logical (which they also call dialectical) regulates our conversation with others in speaking. Aristotle, Theophrastus, and after them almost all the Peripatetics give the following division of philosophy. It is absolutely requisite that the complete person be contemplator of things which have a being, and the practiser of those things which are decent; and this easily appears by the following instances. If the question be proposed, whether the sun, which is so conspicuous to us, be informed with a soul or inanimate, he that makes this disquisition is the thinking man; for he proceeds no farther than to consider the nature of that thing which is proposed. Likewise, if the question be proposed, whether the world be infinite, or whether beyond the system of this world there is any real being, all these things are the objects about which the understanding of man is conversant. But if these be the questions, —what measures must be taken to compose the well ordered life of man, what are the best methods to govern and educate children, or what are the exact rules whereby sovereigns may command and establish laws,—all these queries are proposed for the sole end of action, and the man conversant therein is the moral and practical man.

> Greek: 0. μέλλοντες τὸν φυσικὸν παραδώσειν λόγον ἀναγκαῖον ἡγούμεθα εὐθὺς ἐν ἀρχαῖς διελέσθαι τὴν τῆς φιλοσοφίας πραγματείαν, ἵνʼ εἰδῶμεν τί ἐστι καὶ πόστον μέρος αὐτῆς ἡ φυσικὴ διέξοδος. οἱ μὲν οὖν Στωικοὶ ἔφασαν τὴν μὲν σοφίαν εἶναι θείων τε καὶ ἀνθρωπίνων ἐπιστήμην, τὴν δὲ φιλοσοφίαν ἄσκησιν ἐπιτηδείου τέχνης, ἐπιτήδειον δʼ εἶναι μίαν καὶ ἀνωτάτω τὴν ἀρετήν, ἀρετὰς δὲ τὰς γενικωτάτας τρεῖς, φυσικὴν ἠθικὴν λογικήν· διʼ ἣν αἰτίαν καὶ τριμερής ἐστιν ἡ φιλοσοφία, ἧς τὸ μὲν φυσικὸν τὸ δʼ ἠθικὸν τὸ δὲ λογικόν· καὶ φυσικὸν μὲν ὅταν περὶ κόσμου ζητῶμεν καὶ τῶν ἐν κόσμῳ, ἠθικὸν δὲ τὸ κατησχολημένον περὶ τὸν ἀνθρώπινον βίον, λογικὸν δὲ τὸ περὶ τὸν λόγον, ὃ καὶ διαλεκτικὸν καλοῦσιν. Ἀριστοτέλης δὲ καὶ Θεόφραστος καὶ σχεδὸν πάντες οἱ Περιπατητικοὶ διείλοντο τὴν φιλοσοφίαν οὕτως· ἀναγκαῖον τὸν τέλειον ἄνδρα καὶ θεωρητικὸν εἶναι τῶν ὄντων καὶ πρακτικὸν τῶν δεόντων· τοῦτο δʼ ἔξεστι καὶ ἐκ τούτων συνιδεῖν, οἷον ζητεῖται εἰ ζῷον ἢ μὴ ζῷον ὁ ἣλιος, εἴπερ ὁρᾶται· ὁ τοῦτο δὲ ζητῶν θεωρητικός ἐστιν· οὐδὲ γάρ τι πλέον θεωρεῖται ἢ τὸ ὄν. ζητεῖται ὁμοίως εἰ ἄπειρος ὁ κόσμος ἐστὶ καὶ εἰ ἔξω τι τοῦ κόσμου ἔστι· ταῦτα γὰρ πάντα θεωρητικά. ζητεῖται πάλιν πῶς βιοτεύειν καὶ πῶς προΐστασθαι τέκνων προσήκει καὶ πῶς ἄρχειν καὶ πῶς νομοθετεῖν· ταῦτα γὰρ πάντα ἕνεκα τοῦ πρᾶξαι ζητεῖται καὶ ἔστιν ὁ τοιοῦτος πρακτικὸς ἀνήρ.

[¶1] 1. SINCE we have undertaken to make a diligent search into Nature, I cannot but conclude it necessary to declare what Nature is. It is very absurd to attempt a discourse of the essence of natural things, and not to understand what is the power and sphere of Nature. If Aristotle be credited, Nature is the principle of motion and rest, in that thing in which it exists principally and not by accident. For all things that are conspicuous to our eyes, which are neither fortuitous nor necessary, nor have a divine original, nor acknowledge any such like cause, are called natural and enjoy their proper nature. Of this sort are earth, fire, water, air, plants, animals; to these may be added all things produced from them, such as showers, hail, thunders, hurricanes, and winds. All these confess they had a beginning, none of these were from eternity, but had something as the origin of them; and likewise animals and plants have a principle whence they are produced. But Nature, which in all these things hath the priority, is the principle not only of motion but of repose; whatsoever enjoys the principle of motion, the same has a possibility to find a dissolution. Therefore on this account it is that Nature is the principle of motion and rest.

> Greek: 1. ἐπειδὴ πρόκειται ἡμῖν τὰ φυσικὰ θεωρῆσαι, ἀναγκαῖον ἡγοῦμαι δηλῶσαι, τί ποτʼ ἐστὶν ἡ φύσις ἄτοπον γὰρ πειρᾶσθαι μὲν φυσιολογεῖν, ἀγνοεῖν δʼ αὐτὸ τοῦτο, τὴν τῆς φύσεως δύναμιν. ἔστιν οὖν, κατὰ τὸν Ἀριστοτέλην, φύσις ἀρχὴ κινήσεως καὶ ἠρεμίας, ἐν ᾧ πρώτως ἐστὶ καὶ οὐ κατὰ συμβεβηκός· πάντα γὰρ τὰ ὁρώμενα, ὅσα μήτε ὑπὸ τύχης μήτε ὑπʼ ἀνάγκης μήτʼ ἐστὶ θεῖα μήτε· τοιαύτην αἰτίαν ἔχει, φυσικὰ λέγεται καὶ φύσιν ἰδίαν ἔχει οἷον γῆ πῦρ ὕδωρ ἀὴρ φυτὰ ζῷα· ἔτι δὲ ταῦτα τὰ γινόμενα, ὄμβροι χάλαζαι κεραυνοὶ πρηστῆρες ἄνεμοι ταῦτα γὰρ ἀρχὴν ἔχει τινα· οὐ γὰρ ἐξ αἰῶνος ἕκαστον τούτων ἐστὶν ἀλλʼ ἀπό τινος ἀρχῆς γίνεται· καὶ ταῦτα μέντοι, οἷον ζῷα φυτά, ἀρχὴν γενέσεως ἔχει· ἐν δὴ τούτοις ἡ φύσις ἀρχὴ τὸ πρῶτόν ἐστι καὶ οὐ μόνον κινήσεως ἀλλὰ καὶ ἠρεμίας ὅσα γὰρ ἀρχὴν κινήσεως ἔλαβε, ταῦτα δύναται λαβεῖν καὶ τελευτήν. διὰ τοῦτο οὖν ἡ φύσις ἀρχὴ κινήσεώς ἐστι καὶ ἠρεμίας οἱ μὲν·

[¶2] 2. THE followers of Aristotle and Plato conclude that the elements are discriminated from a principle. Thales the Milesian supposeth that a principle and the elements are one and the same thing, but it is evident that they vastly differ one from another. For the elements are things compounded; but we do pronounce that principles admit not of a composition, nor are the effects of any other being. Those which we call elements are earth, water, air, and fire. But we term those principles which have nothing precedent to them out of which they are produced; for otherwise not these themselves, but rather those things whereof they are produced, would be the principles. Now there are some things which have a pre-existence to earth and water, from which they are begotten; to wit, matter, which is without form or shape; then form, which we call ἐντελέχεια (actuality); and lastly, privation. Thales therefore is very peccant, by affirming that water is both an element and a principle.

> Greek: 2. οὖν περὶ Ἀριστοτέλην καὶ Πλάτωνα διαφέρειν ἡγοῦνται ἀρχὴν καὶ στοιχεῖα, Θαλῆς δʼ ὁ Μιλήσιος ταὐτὸν νομίζει ἀρχὴν καὶ στοιχεῖα. πλεῖστον δʼ ὅσον διαφέρει ἀλλήλων τὰ μὲν γὰρ στοιχεῖά ἐστι σύνθετα, τὰς δʼ ἀρχάς φαμεν εἶναι οὔτε συνθέτους οὔτʼ ἀποτελέσματα οἷον στοιχεῖα μὲν καλοῦμεν γῆν ὕδωρ ἀέρα πῦρ· ἀρχὰς δὲ λὲγομεν διὰ τοῦτο, ὅτι οὐκ ἔχει τι πρότερον ἐξ οὗ γεννᾶται, ἐπεὶ οὐκ ἔσται ἀρχὴ τοῦτο, ἀλλʼ ἐκεῖνο ἐξ οὗ γεγέννηται. τῆς δὲ γῆς καὶ τοῦ ὕδατος ἔστι τινὰ πρότερα ἐξ ὧν γέγονεν, ἡ ὕλη ἄμορφος οὖσα καὶ ἀειδής, καὶ τὸ εἶδος ὃ καλοῦμεν ἐντελέχειαν, καὶ ἡ στέρησις. ἁμαρτάνει οὖν ὁ Θαλῆς στοιχεῖον καὶ ἀρχὴν λέγων τὸ ὕδωρ, Θαλῆς ὁ Μιλήσιος ἀρχὴν τῶν ὄντων ἀπεφὴνατο τὸ ὕδωρ·

[¶3] 3. THALES the Milesian doth affirm that water is the principle whence all things in the universe spring. This person appears to be the first of philosophers; from him the Ionic sect took its denomination, for there are many families and successions amongst philosophers. After he had professed philosophy in Egypt, when he was very old, he returned to Miletus. He pronounced, that all things had their original from water, and into water all things are resolved. His first reason was, that whatsoever was the prolific seed of all animals was a principle, and that is moist; so that it is probable that all things receive their original from humidity. His second reason was, that all plants are nourished and fructified by that thing which is moist, of which being deprived they wither away. Thirdly, that that fire of which the sun and stars are made is nourished by watery exhalations,—yea, and the world itself; which moved Homer to sing that the generation of it was from water:—
The ocean is
Of all things the kind genesis.

> Greek: 3. δοκεῖ δʼ ὁ ἀνὴρ οὗτος ἄρξαι τῆς φιλοσοφίας καὶ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ Ἰωνικὴ αἵρεσις προσηγορεύθη· ἐγένοντο γὰρ πλεῖσται διαδοχαὶ φιλοσοφίας. φιλοσοφήσας δʼ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ πρεσβύτσρος ἦλθεν εἰς Μίλητον. ἐξ ὕδατος δέ φησι πάντα εἶναι καὶ εἰς ὕδωρ πάντα ἀναλύεσθαι στοχάζεται δʼ ἐκ τούτου πρῶτον, ὅτι πάντων τῶν ζῴων ἡ γονὴ ἀρχή ἐστιν, ὑγρὰ οὖσα· οὕτως εἰκὸς καὶ τὰ πάντα ἐξ ὑγροῦ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχειν. δεύτερον, ὅτι πάντα τὰ φυτὰ ὑγρῷ τρέφεται καὶ καρποφορεῖ, ἀμοιροῦντα δὲ ξηραίνεται τρίτον, ὅτι καὶ αὐτὸ τὸ πῦρ τὸ τοῦ ἡλίου καὶ τὸ τῶν ἄστρων ταῖς τῶν ὑδάτων ἀναθυμιάσεσι τρέφεται καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ κόσμος· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ Ὅμηρος ταύτην τὴν γνώμην ὑποτίθεται περὶ τοῦ ὕδατος Ὠκεανός, ὅσπερ γένεσις πάντεσσι τέτυκται.

[¶4] Anaximander, who himself was a Milesian, assigns the principle of all things to the Infinite, from whence all things flow, and into the same are corrupted; hence it is that infinite worlds are framed, and those vanish again into that whence they have their original. And thus he farther proceeds, For what other reason is there of an Infinite but this, that there may be nothing deficient as to the generation or subsistence of what is in nature? There is his error, that he doth not acquaint us what this Infinite is, whether it be air, or water, or earth, or any other such like body. Besides he is peccant, in that, giving us the material cause, he is silent as to the efficient cause of beings; for this thing which he makes his Infinite can be nothing but matter; but operation cannot take place in the sphere of matter, except an efficient cause be annexed.

> Greek: Ἀναξίμανδρος δʼ ὁ Μιλήσιός φησι τῶν ὄντων τὴν ἀρχὴν εἶναι τὸ ἄπειρον ἐκ γὰρ τούτου πάντα γίνεσθαι καὶ εἰς τοῦτο πάντα φθείρεσθαι διὸ καὶ γεννᾶσθαι ἀπείρους κόσμους, καὶ πάλιν φθείρεσθαι εἰς τὸ ἐξ οὗ γίνονται. λέγει γοῦν διότι ἄπειρόν ἐστιν, ἵνα μηδὲν ἐλλείπῃ ἡ γένεσις ἡ ὑφισταμένη. ἁμαρτάνει δʼ οὗτος, μὴ λέγων τί ἐστι τὸ ἄπειρον, πότερον ἀήρ ἐστιν ἢ ὕδωρ ἢ γῆ ἢ ἄλλα τινὰ σώματα. ἁμαρτάνει οὖν, τὴν μὲν ὕλην ἀποφαινὸ μενος τὸ δὲ ποιοῦν αἴτιον ἀναιρῶν· τὸ γὰρ ἄπειρον οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ ὕλη ἐστίν οὐ δύναται δʼ ἡ ὕλη εἶναι ἐνεργείᾳ, ἂν μὴ τὸ ποιοῦν ὑποκέηται. Ἀναξιμένης δʼ ὁ Μιλήσιος ἀρχὴν τῶν ὄντων ἀέρα ἀπεφήνατο·

[¶5] Anaximenes his fellow-citizen pronounceth, that air is the principle of all beings; from it all receive their original, and into it all return. He affirms that our soul is nothing but air; it is that which constitutes and preserves; the whole world is invested with spirit and air. For spirit and air are synonymous. This person is in this deficient, that he concludes that of pure air, which is a simple body and is made of one only form, all animals are composed. It is not possible to think that a single principle should be the matter of all things, from whence they receive their subsistence; besides this there must be an operating cause. Silver (for example) is not of itself sufficient to frame a drinking cup; an operator also is required, which is the silversmith. The like may be applied to vessels made of wood, brass, or any other material.

> Greek: ἐκ γὰρ τούτου τὰ πάντα γίνεσθαι καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν πάλιν ἀναλύεσθαι, οἷον ἡ ψυχή φησὶν ἡ ἡμετέρα ἀὴρ οὖσα συγκρατεῖ ἡμᾶς καὶ ὅλον τὸν κόσμον πνεῦμα καὶ ἀὴρ περιέχει· λέγεται δὲ συνωνύμως ἀὴρ καὶ πνεῦμα. ἁμαρτάνει δὲ καὶ οὗτος, ἐξ ἁπλοῦ καὶ μονοειδοῦς ἀέρος καὶ πνεύματος δοκῶν συνεστάναι τὰ ζῷα· ἀδύνατον γὰρ ἀρχὴν μίαν τὴν ὕλην τῶν ὄντων, ἐξ ἧς τὰ πάντα, ὑποστῆναι· ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ ποιοῦν αἴτιον χρὴ ὑποτιθέναι οἷον ἄργυρος οὐκ ἀρκεῖ πρὸς τὸ ἔκπωμα γενέσθαι, ἂν μὴ καὶ τὸ ποιοῦν ᾖ, τουτέστιν ὁ ἀργυροκόπος ὁμοίως καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ χαλκοῦ καὶ τοῦ ξύλου καὶ τῆς ἄλλης ὕλης. Ἀναξαγόρας ὁ Κλαζομένιος ἀρχὰς τῶν ὄντων τὰς ὁμοιομερείας ἀπεφήνατο·

[¶6] Anaxagoras the Clazomenian asserted Homoeomeries (or parts similar or homogeneous) to be the original cause of all beings; it seemed to him impossible that any thing could arise of nothing or be resolved into nothing. Let us therefore instance in nourishment, which appears simple and uniform, such as bread which we owe to Ceres, and water which we drink. Of this very nutriment, our hair, our veins, our arteries, nerves, bones, and all our other parts are nourished. These things thus being performed, it must be granted that the nourishment which is received by us contains all those things by which these parts of us are increased. In it there are those particles which are producers of blood, bones, nerves, and all other parts; which particles (as he thought) reason discovers for us. For it is not necessary that we should reduce all things under the objects of sense; for bread and water are fitted to the senses, yet in them there are those particles latent which are discoverable only by reason. It being therefore evident that there are particles in the nourishment similar to what is produced thereby, he terms these homogeneous parts, averring that they are the principles of beings. Matter is according to him these similar parts, and the efficient cause is a Mind, which orders all things that have an existence. Thus he begins his discourse: “All things were confused one among another; but Mind divided and reduced them to order.” In this he is to be commended, that he yokes together matter and an intellectual agent.

> Greek: ἐδόκει γὰρ αὐτῷ ἀπορώτατον εἶναι, πῶς ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ὄντος δύναταί γίνεσθαι ἢ φθείρεσθαι εἰς τὸ μὴ ὄν· τροφὴν γοῦν προσφερόμεθα ἁπλῆν καὶ μονοειδῆ, οἷον τὸν Δημήτριον ἄρτον, τὸ ὕδωρ πίνοντες· καὶ ἐκ ταύτης τῆς τροφῆς τρέφεται θρὶξ φλὲψ ἀρτηρία νεῦρα ὀστᾶ καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ μόρια. τούτων οὖν γινομένων, ὁμολογητέον ἐστὶν ὅτι ἐν τῇ τροφῇ τῇ προσφερομένῃ πάντα ἐστὶ τὰ ὄντα καὶ ἐκ τῶν ὄντων πάντα αὔξεται καὶ ἐν ἐκείνῃ ἐστὶ τῇ τροφῇ μόρια αἵματος γεννητικὰ καὶ νεύρων καὶ ὀστέων καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἃ ἦν λόγῳ θεωρητὰ μόρια. οὐ γὰρ δεῖ πάντα ἐπὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν ἀνάγειν, ὅτι ἄρτος καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ ταῦτα κατασκευάζει, ἀλλʼ ἐν τούτοις ἔστι λόγῳ θεωρητὰ μόρια. ἀπὸ τοῦ οὖν ὅμοια τὰ μέρη εἶναι ἐν τῇ τροφῇ τοῖς γεννωμένοις ὁμοιομερείας αὐτὰ ἐκάλεσε καὶ ἀρχὰς τῶν ὄντων ἀπεφήνατο καὶ τὰς μὲν ὁμοιομερείας ὕλην, τὸ δὲ ποιοῦν αἴτιον τὸν νοῦν τὸν τὰ πάντα διαταξάμενον. ἄρχεται δʼ οὕτως ὁμοῦ πάντα χρήματα ἦν, νοῦς δʼ αὐτὰ διῄρε καὶ διεκόσμησε χρήματα λέγων τὰ πράγματα. ἀποδεκτέος οὖν ἐστιν, ὅτι τῇ ὕλῃ τὸν τεχνίτην προσέζευξεν. Ἀρχέλαος Ἀπολλοδώρου Ἀθηναῖος ἀέρα ἄπειρον καὶ τὴν περὶ αὐτὸν πυκνότητα καὶ μάνωσιν·

[¶7] Archelaus the son of Apollodorus, the Athenian, pronounceth, that the principles of all things have their original from an infinite air rarefied or condensed. Air rarefied is fire, condensed is water. These philosophers, the followers of Thales, succeeding one another, made up that sect which takes to itself the denomination of the Ionic.

> Greek: τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν εἶναι πῦρ τὸ δʼ ὕδωρ. οὗτοι μὲν οὖν ἐφεξῆς; ἀλλήλοις ταῖς διαδοχαῖς γενόμενοι τὴν λεχθεῖσαν Ἰωνικὴν συμπληροῦσι φιλοσοφίαν ἀπὸ Θάλητος.

[¶8] Pythagoras the Samian, the son of Mnesarchus, from another origin deduces the principles of all things; it was he who first gave philosophy its name. He assigns the first principles to be numbers, and those symmetries resulting from them which he styles harmonies; and the result of both combined he terms elements, called geometrical. Again, he enumerates unity and the indefinite binary number amongst the principles. One of these principles tends to an efficient and forming cause, which is Mind, and that is God; the other to the passive and material part, and that is the visible world. Moreover the nature of number (he saith) consists in the ten; for all people, whether Grecians or barbarians, reckon from one to ten, and thence return to one again. Farther he avers the virtue of ten consists in the quaternion; the reason whereof is this,— if any person reckon from one, and by addition place his numbers so as to take in the quaternary, he shall complete the number ten; if he exceed the four, he shall go beyond the ten; for one, two, three, and four being cast up together make up ten. The nature of numbers, therefore, if we regard the units, resteth in the ten; but if we regard its power, in the four. Therefore the Pythagoreans say that their most sacred oath is by that God who delivered to them the quaternary.
By th’ founder of the sacred number four,
Eternal Nature’s font and root, they swore.

> Greek: πάλιν δʼ ἀπʼ ἄλλης ἀρχῆς Πυθαγόρας Μνησάρχου Σάμιος, ὁ πρῶτος φιλοσοφίαν τούτῳ τῷ ῥήματι προσαγορεύσας, ἀρχὰς τοὺς ἀριθμοὺς καὶ τὰς συμμετρίας τὰς ἐν τούτοις, ἃς καὶ ἁρμονίας καλεῖ τὰ δʼ ἐξ ἀμφοτέρων σύνθετα στοιχεῖα, καλούμενα δὲ γεωμετρικά· πάλιν δὲ τὴν μονάδα καὶ τὴν ἀόριστον δυάδα ἐν ταῖς ἀρχαῖς. σπεύδει δʼ αὐτῷ τῶν ἀρχῶν ἡ μὲν ἐπὶ τὸ ποιητικὸν αἴτιον καὶ εἰδικόν, ὅπερ ἐστὶ νοῦς,· ὁ θεός, ἡ δʼ ἐπὶ τὸ παθητικὸν τε καὶ ὑλικόν, ὅπερ ἐστὶν ὁ ὁρατὸς κόσμος·. εἶναι δὲ τὴν φύσιν τοῦ ἀριθμοῦ δεκάδα· μέχρι γὰρ τῶν δέκα πάντες Ἕλληνες, πάντες βάρβαροι ἀριθμοῦσιν, ἐφʼ ἃ ἐλθόντες πάλιν ἀναποδοῦσιν ἐπὶ τὴν μονάδα· καὶ τῶν δέκα πάλιν, φησίν, ἡ δύναμίς ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς τέσσαρσι καὶ τῇ τετράδι τὸ δʼ αἴτιον, εἴ τις ἀπὸ τῆς μονάδος ἀναποδῶν κατὰ πρόσθεσιν τιθείη τοὺς ἀριθμοὺς ἄχρι τῶν τεσσάρων προελθὼν ἐκπληρώσει τὸν δέκα ἀριθμόν ἐὰν δὲ ὑπερβάληται τὸν τῆς τετράδος, καὶ τῶν δέκα ὑπερεκπεσεῖται οἷον εἴ τις θείη ἓν καὶ δύο προσθείη καὶ τρία καὶ τούτοις τέσσαρα, τὸν τῶν δέκα πληρώσει ἀριθμόν·

[¶9] Of this number the soul of man is composed; for mind, knowledge, opinion, and sense are the four that complete the soul, from which all sciences, all arts, all rational faculties derive themselves. For what our mind perceives, it perceives after the manner of a thing that is one, the soul itself being a unity; as for instance, a multitude of persons are not the object of our sense nor are comprehended by us, for they are infinite; our understanding gives the general notion of a man, in which all individuals agree. The number of individuals is infinite; the generic or specific nature of all being is a unit, or to be apprehended as one only thing; from this one conception we give the genuine measures of all existence, and therefore we affirm that a certain class of beings are rational and discoursive beings. But when we come to give the nature of a horse, it is that animal which neighs; and this being common to all horses, it is manifest that the understanding, which hath such like conceptions, is in its nature unity. The number which is called the infinite binary must needs be science; in every demonstration or belief belonging to science, and in every syllogism, we draw that conclusion which is the question doubted of, from those propositions which are by all granted, by which means another proposition is demonstrated. The comprehension of these we call knowledge; for which reason science is the binary number. But opinion is the ternary; for that rationally follows from comprehension. The objects of opinion are many things, and the ternary number denotes a multitude, as “Thrice happy Grecians;” for which reason Pythagoras admits the ternary. This sect of philosophers is called the Italic, by reason Pythagoras opened his school in Italy; his hatred of the tyranny of Polycrates enforced him to leave his native country Samos.

> Greek: ὥστε ὁ ἀριθμὸς κατὰ μὲν μονάδα ἐν τοῖς δέκα κατὰ δὲ δύναμιν ἐν τοῖς τέσσαρσι διὸ καὶ ἐφθέγγοντο οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι, ὡς μεγίστου ὅρκου ὄντος τῆς τετράδος,
οὐ μὰ τὸν ἁμετέρᾳ ψυχᾷ παραδόντα τετρακτύν,
παγὰν ἀενάου φύσεος ῥίζωμὰ τʼ ἔχουσαν.
καὶ ἡ ἡμετέρα ψυχή φησὶν ἐκ τετράδος σύγκειται εἶναι γὰρ νοῦν ἐπιστήμην δόξαν αἴσθησιν, ἐξ ὧν πᾶσα τέχνη καὶ ἐπιστήμη καὶ αὐτοὶ λογικοὶ ἐσμεν. νοῦς μὲν οὖν ἡ μονάς ἐστιν· ὁ γὰρ νοῦς κατὰ μονάδα θεωρεῖται, οἷον πολλῶν ὄντων ἀνθρώπων οἱ μὲν ἐπὶ μέρους εἰσὶν ἀναίσθητοι ἀπερίληπτοι καὶ ἄπειροι, ἀλλʼ αὐτὸ τοῦτο ἄνθρωπον ἕνα μόνον νοοῦμεν, ᾧ οὐδεὶς ἔτυχεν ὅμοιος· καὶ ἵππον ἕνα μόνον νοοῦμεν, οἱ δʼ ἐπὶ μέρους εἰσὶν ἄπειροι. τὰ γὰρ εἴδη ταῦτα πάντα καὶ γένη κατὰ μονάδας εἰσί· διὸ καὶ ἐπὶ· ἑνὸς ἑκάστου αὐτῶν τοῦτον τὸν ὅρον ἀποδιδόντες λέγουσι ζῷον λογικὸν ἢ ζῷον χρεμετιστικὸν ῥητέον. διὰ τοῦτο οὖν νοῦς ἡ μονάς, ᾧ ταῦτα νοοῦμεν, καὶ ἡ δυὰς δʼ ἡ ἀόριστος ἐπιστήμη, εἰκότως· πᾶσα γὰρ ἀπόδειξις καὶ πᾶσα πίστις ἐπιστήμης, πρὸς δὲ καὶ πᾶς συλλογισμὸς ἔκ τινων ὁμολογουμένων τὸ ἀμφισβητούμενον συνάγει καὶ ῥᾳδίως ἀποδείκνυται ἕτερον· ὧν ἡ ἐπιστήμη κατάληψίς ἐστι, διὸ εἴη ἂν δυάς. ἡ δὲ δόξα τριὰς ἐκ καταλήψεώς ἐστιν, εὐλόγως, ὅτι πολλῶν ἐστιν ἡ δόξα ἡ δὲ τριὰς πλῆθος, ὡς τρισμάκαρες Δαναοὶ διὰ τοῦτο οὖν ἐγκρίνει τὴν τριάδα … ἡ δὲ τούτων αἵρεσις Ἰταλικὴ προσηγορεύθη διὰ τὸ τὸν Πυθαγόραν ἐν Ἰταλίᾳ σχολάσαι μετέστη γὰρ ἀπὸ Σάμου τῆς πατρίδος, τῇ Πολυκράτους τυραννίδι δυσαρεστήσας.

[¶10] Heraclitus and Hippasus of Metapontum suppose that fire gives the origination to all beings, that they all flow from fire, and in fire they all conclude; for of fire when first quenched the world was constituted. The first part of the world, being most condensed and contracted within itself, made the earth; but part of that earth being loosened and made thin by fire, water was produced; afterwards this water being exhaled and rarefied into vapors became air; after all this the world itself, and all other corporeal beings, shall be dissolved by fire in the universal conflagration. By them therefore it appears that fire is what gives beginning to all things, and is that in which all things receive their period.

> Greek: Ἡράκλειτος καὶ Ἵππασος ὁ Μεταποντῖνος ἀρχὴν τῶν ὅλων τὸ πῦρ· ἐκ πυρὸς γὰρ τὰ πάντα γίνεσθαι καὶ εἰς πῦρ πάντα τελευτᾶν λέγουσι· τούτου δὲ κατασβεννυμένου, κοσμοποιεῖσθαι τὰ πάντα. πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ τὸ παχυμερέστατον αὐτοῦ εἰς αὑτὸ συστελλόμενον γῆν γίνεσθαι, ἔπειτʼ ἀναχαλωμένην τὴν γῆν ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς φύσει ὕδωρ ἀποτελεῖσθαι, ἀναθυμιώμενον δʼ ἀέρα γίνεσθαι πάλιν δὲ τὸν κόσμον καὶ πάντα τὰ σώματα ὑπὸ πυρὸς ἀναλοῦσθαι ἐν τῇ ἐκπυρώσει.

[¶11] Epicurus the son of Neocles, the Athenian, his philosophical sentiments being the same with those of Democritus, affirms that the principles of all being are bodies which are perceptible only by reason; they admit not of a vacuity, nor of any original, but being of a self-existence are eternal and incorruptible; they are not liable to any diminution, they are indestructible, nor is it possible for them to receive any transformation of parts, or admit of any alterations; of these reason only is the discoverer; they are in a perpetual motion in vacuity, and by means of the empty space; for the vacuum itself is infinite, and the bodies that move in it are infinite. Those bodies acknowledge these three accidents, figure, magnitude, and gravity. Democritus acknowledged but two, magnitude and figure. Epicurus added the third, to wit, gravity; for he pronounced that it is necessary that bodies receive their motion from that impression which springs from gravity, otherwise they could not be moved. The figures of atoms cannot be apprehended by our senses, but they are not infinite. These figures are neither hooked nor trident-shaped nor ring-shaped, such figures as these being easily broken; but the atoms are impassible, impenetrable; they have indeed figures proper to themselves, which are discovered only by reason. It is called an atom, by reason not of its smallness but of its indivisibility; in it no vacuity, no passible affection is to be found. And that there is an atom is perfectly clear; for there are elements which have a perpetual duration, and there are animals which admit of a vacuity, and there is a unity.

> Greek: ἀρχὴ οὖν τὸ πῦρ, ὅτι ἐκ τούτου τὰ πάντα· τέλος δέ, ὅτι καὶ εἰς τοῦτο ἀναλύεται τὰ πάντα. Ἐπίκουρος Νεοκλέους Ἀθηναῖος κατὰ Δημόκριτον φιλοσοφήσας ἔφη τὰς ἀρχὰς τῶν ὄντων σώματα λόγῳ θεωρητά, ἀμέτοχα κενοῦ, ἀγένητα, ἀίδια, ἄφθαρτα, οὔτε θραυσθῆναι δυνάμενα οὔτε διάπλασιν ἐκ τῶν μερῶν λαβεῖν οὔτʼ ἀλλοιωθῆναι εἶναι δʼ αὐτὰ λόγῳ θεωρητά ταῦτα μέντοι κινεῖσθαι ἐν τῷ κενῷ καὶ διὰ τοῦ κενοῦ· εἶναι δὲ καὶ αὐτὸ τὸ κενὸν ἄπειρον καὶ τὰ σώματα ἄπειρα. συμβεβηκέναι δὲ τοῖς σώμασι τρία ταῦτα, σχῆμα μέγεθος βάρος. Δημόκριτος μὲν γὰρ ἔλεγε δύο, μέγεθὸς τε καὶ σχῆμα, ὁ δʼ Ἐπίκουρος τούτοις καὶ τρίτον, τὸ βάρος, προσέθηκεν· ἀνάγκη γάρ φησὶ κινεῖσθαι τὰ σώματα τῇ τοῦ βάρους πληγῇ·, ἐπεὶ οὐ κινηθήσεται εἶναι δὲ τὰ σχήματα τῶν ἀτόμων ἀπερίληπτα οὐκ ἄπειρα μὴ γὰρ εἶναι μήτʼ ἀγκιστροειδεῖς μήτε τριαινοειδεῖς μήτε κρικοειδεῖς· ταῦτα γὰρ τὰ σχήματα εὔθραυστά ἐστιν· αἱ δʼ ἄτομοι ἀπαθεῖς ἄθραυστοι, ἴδια δʼ ἔχειν σχήματα λόγῳ θεωρητά. καὶ εἴρηται ἄτομος, οὐχ ὅτι ἐστὶν ἐλαχίστη ἀλλʼ ὅτι οὐ δύναται τμηθῆναι, ἀπαθὴς οὖσα καὶ ἀμέτοχος κενοῦ· ὥστε, ἐὰν εἴπῃ ἄτομον, ἄθραυστον λέγει καὶ ἀπαθῆ, ἀμέτοχον κενοῦ. ὅτι δὲ ἔστιν ἄτομος, σαφές·

[¶12] Empedocles the Agrigentine, the son of Meton, affirms that there are four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, and two powers which bear the greatest command in nature, concord and discord, of which one is the union, the other the division of beings. Thus he sings,
Mark the four roots of all created things:—
Bright shining Jove, Juno that giveth life,
Pluto beneath the earth, and Nestis who
Doth with her tears supply the mortal fount.

> Greek: καὶ γὰρ ἔστι στοιχεῖα ἀεὶ ὄντα καὶ ζῷα κενὰ καὶ ἡ μονάς. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς Μέτωνος Ἀκραγαντῖνος τέτταρα μὲν λέγει στοιχεῖα, πῦρ ἀέρα ὕδωρ γῆν· δύο δʼ ἀρχικὰς δυνάμεις, φιλίαν τε καὶ νεῖκος· ὧν ἡ μέν ἐστιν ἑνωτικὴ τὸ δὲ διαιρετικόν. φησὶ δʼ οὕτως
τέσσαρα τῶν πάντων ῥιζώματα πρῶτον ἄκουε.
Ζεὺς ἀργὴς Ἥρη·

[¶13] By Jupiter he means fire and aether, by Juno that gives life he means the air, by Pluto the earth, by Nestis and the fountain of all mortals (as it were) seed and water.

> Greek: τε φερέσβιος ἠδʼ Ἀιδωνεύς,
νῆστὶς θʼ, ἣ δακρύοις τέγγει κρούνωμα βρότειον.

[¶14] Socrates the son of Sophroniscus, and Plato son of Ariston, both natives of Athens, entertain the same opinion concerning the universe; for they suppose three principles, God, matter, and the idea. God is the universal understanding; matter is that which is the first substratum, accommodated for the generation and corruption of beings; the idea is an incorporeal essence, existing in the cogitations and apprehensions of God; for God is the soul and mind of the world.

> Greek: Δία μὲν γὰρ λέγει τὴν ζέσιν καὶ τὸν αἰθέρα, Ἥρην δὲ φερέσβιον τὸν ἀέρα, τὴν δὲ γῆν τὸν Ἀιδωνέα, Νῆστιν δὲ καὶ κρούνωμα βρότειον οἱονεὶ τὸ σπέρμα καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ. Σωκράτης Σωφρονίσκου Ἀθηναῖος καὶ Πλάτων Ἀρίστωνος Ἀθηναῖος ʽαἱ γὰρ αὐταὶ περὶ παντὸς ἑκατέρου δόξαἰ τρεῖς ἀρχάς, τὸν θεὸν τὴν ὕλην τὴν ἰδέαν. ὁ δὲ θεὸς νοῦς ἐστι τοῦ κόσμου, ὕλη δὲ τὸ ὑποκείμενον πρῶτον γενέσει καὶ φθορᾷ, ἰδέα δʼ οὐσία ἀσώματος ἐν τοῖς νοήμασι καὶ ταῖς φαντασίαις τοῦ θεοῦ.

[¶15] Aristotle the son of Nichomachus, the Stagirite, constitutes three principles; Entelecheia (which is the same with form), matter, and privation. He acknowledges four elements, and adds a certain fifth body, which is ethereal and not obnoxious to mutation.

> Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης δὲ Νικομάχου Σταγειρίτης ἀρχὰς μὲν ἐντελέχειαν, ἤτοι εἶδος ὕλην στέρησιν· στοιχεῖα δὲ τέτταρα, πέμπτον δέ τι σῶμα αἰθέριον ἀμετάβλητον.

[¶16] Zeno son of Mnaseas, the native of Citium, avers these principles to be God and matter, the first of which is the efficient cause, the other the passible and receptive. Four elements he likewise confesses.

> Greek: Ζήνων Μνασέου Κιτιεὺς ἀρχὰς μὲν τὸν θεὸν καὶ τὴν ὕλην, ὧν ὁ μέν ἐστι τοῦ ποιεῖν αἴτιος ἡ δὲ τοῦ πάσχειν, στοιχεῖα δὲ τέτταρα.

[¶17] 4. THE world being broken and confused, after this manner it was reduced into figure and composure as now it is. The insectible bodies or atoms, by a wild and fortuitous motion, without any governing power, incessantly and swiftly were hurried one amongst another, many bodies being jumbled together; upon this account they have a diversity in the figures and magnitude. These therefore being so jumbled together, those bodies which were the greatest and heaviest sank into the lowest place; they that were of a lesser magnitude, being round, smooth, and slippery, meeting with those heavier bodies were easily broken into pieces, and were carried into higher places. But when that force whereby these variously figured particles fought with and struck one another, and forced the lighter upwards, did cease, and there was no farther power left to drive them into superior regions, yet they were wholly hindered from descending downwards, and were compelled to reside in those places capable to receive them; and these were the heavenly spaces, unto which a multitude of these little bodies were whirled, and these being thus shivered fell into coherence and mutual embraces, and by this means the heaven was produced. Then a various and great multitude of atoms enjoying the same nature, as it is before asserted, being hurried aloft, did form the stars. The multitude of these exhaled bodies, having struck and broke the air in shivers, forced a passage through it; this being converted into wind invested the stars, as it moved, and whirled them about, by which means to this present time that circulary motion which these stars have in the heavens is maintained. Much after the same manner the earth was made; for by those little particles whose gravity made them to reside in the lower places the earth was formed. The heaven, fire, and air were constituted of those particles which were carried aloft. But a great deal of matter remaining in the earth, this being condensed by the forcible driving of the winds and the breathings from the stars, every little part and form of it was broken in pieces, which produced the element of water; but this being fluidly disposed did run into those places which were hollow, and these places were those that were capable to receive and protect it; or else the water, subsisting by itself, did make the lower places hollow. After this manner the principal parts of the world were constituted.

> Greek: 4. ὁ τοίνυν κόσμος συνέστη περικεκλασμένῳ σχήματι ἐσχηματισμένος τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον. τῶν ἀτόμων σωμάτων ἀπρονόητον καὶ τυχαίαν ἐχόντων τὴν κίνησιν συνεχῶς τε καὶ τάχιστα κινουμένων εἰς τὸ αὐτό, πολλὰ σώματα συνηθροίσθη, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ποικιλίαν ἔχοντα καὶ σχημάτων καὶ μεγεθῶν. ἀθροιζομένων δʼ ἐν ταὐτῷ τούτων, τὰ μέν, ὅσα μείζονα ἦν καὶ βαρύτερα, πάντως ὑπεκάθιζεν ὅσα δὲ μικρὰ καὶ περιφερῆ καὶ λεῖα καὶ εὐόλισθα, ταῦτα καὶ ἐξεθλίβετο κατὰ τὴν σύνοδον τῶν σωμάτων εἴς τε τὸ μετέωρον ἀνεφέρετο. ὡς δ’ οὖν ἐξέλιπε μὲν ἡ πληκτικὴ δύναμις μετεωρίζουσα, οὐκέτι δʼ ἦγεν ἡ πληγὴ πρὸς τὸ μετέωρον, ἐκωλύετο δὲ ταῦτα κάτω φέρεσθαι, ἐπιέζετο πρὸς τοὺς τόπους τοὺς δυναμένους δέξασθαι· οὗτοι δʼ ἦσαν οἱ πέριξ, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις τὸ πλῆθος τῶν σωμάτων περιεκλᾶτο, περιπλεκόμενα δʼ ἀλλήλοις κατὰ τὴν περίκλασιν τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐγέννησεν· τῆς δʼ αὐτῆς ἐχόμεναι φύσεως αἱ ἄτομοι, ποικίλαι οὖσαι, καθὼς εἴρηται, πρὸς τὸ μετέωρον ἐξωθούμεναι, τὴν τῶν ἀστέρων φύσιν ἀπετέλουν· τὸ δὲ πλῆθος τῶν ἀναθυμιωμένων σωμάτων ἐπέπληττε τὸν ἀέρα καὶ τοῦτον ἐξέθλιβε· πνευματούμενος δʼ οὗτος κατὰ τὴν κίνησιν καὶ συμπεριλαμβάνων τὰ ἄστρα συμπεριῆγε ταῦτα καὶ τὴν νῦν περιφορὰν αὐτῶν μετέωρον ἐφύλαττε. κἄπειτα ἐκ μὲν τῶν ὑποκαθιζόντων ἐγεννήθη ἡ γῆ, ἐκ δὲ τῶν μετεωριζομένων οὐρανὸς πῦρ ἀήρ. πολλῆς δʼ ὕλης ἔτι περιειλημμένης ἐν τῇ γῇ πυκνουμένης τε ταύτης κατὰ τὰς ἀπὸ τῶν πνευμάτων πληγὰς καὶ τὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀστέρων αὔρας, προσεθλίβετο πᾶς ὁ μικρομερὴς σχηματισμὸς ταύτης; καὶ τὴν ὑγρὰν φύσιν ἐγέννα· ῥευστικῶς δʼ αὕτη διακειμένη κατεφέρετο πρὸς τοὺς κοίλους τόπους καὶ δυναμένους χωρῆσαὶ τε καὶ στέξαι, ἢ καθʼ αὑτὸ τὸ ὕδωρ ὑποστὰν ἐκοίλαινε τοὺς ὑποκειμένους τόπους. τὰ μὲν οὖν κυριώτατα μέρη τοῦ κόσμου τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον ἐγενήθη.

[¶18] 5. THE Stoics pronounce that the world is one thing, and this they say is the universe and is corporeal. Empedocles’s opinion is, that the world is one; yet by no means the system of this world must be styled the universe, but that it is a small part of it, and the remainder is idle matter. What to Plato seems the truest he thus declares, that there is one world, and that world is the universe; and this he endeavors to evince by three arguments. First, that the world could not be complete and perfect, if it did not within itself include all beings. Secondly, nor could it give the true resemblance of its original and exemplar, if it were not the one only begotten thing. Thirdly, it could not be incorruptible, if there were any being out of its compass to whose power it might be obnoxious. But to Plato it may be thus returned. First, that the world is not complete and perfect, nor doth it contain all things within itself. And if man is a perfect being, yet he doth not encompass all things. Secondly, that there are many exemplars and originals of statues, houses, and pictures. Thirdly, how is the world perfect, if any thing beyond it is possible to be moved about it? But the world is not incorruptible, nor can it be so conceived, because it had an original. To Metrodorus it seems absurd, that in a large field one only stalk should grow, and in an infinite space one only world exist; and that this universe is infinite is manifest by this, that there are causes infinite. Now if this world were finite and the causes which produced it infinite, it is necessary that the worlds likewise be infinite; for where all causes do concur, there the effects also must appear, let the causes be what they will, either atoms or elements.

> Greek: 5. οἱ μὲν ἀπὸ τῆς Στοᾶς ἕνα κόσμον ἀπεφήναντο, ὃν δὴ καὶ τὸ πᾶν ἔφασαν εἶναι καὶ τὸ σωματικόν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δὲ κόσμον μὲν ἕνα, οὐ μέντοι τὸ πᾶν εἶναι τὸν κόσμον ἀλλʼ ὀλίγον τι τοῦ παντὸς μέρος, τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν ἀργὴν ὕλην. Πλάτων δὲ τεκμαίρεται τὸ δοκοῦν, ὅτι εἷς ὁ κόσμος καὶ ἓν τὸ πᾶν, ἐκ τριῶν· ἐκ τοῦ μὴ εἶναι τέλειον, ἐὰν μὴ πάντα περιέχῃ· ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ἔσεσθαι ὅμοιον τῷ παραδείγματι, ἐὰν μὴ μονογενὴς ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ἔσεσθαι αὐτὸν ἄφθαρτον, ἐὰν ᾖ τι ἐξωτέρω αὐτοῦ. πρὸς δὴ τὸν Πλάτωνα ῥητέον, ὅτι οὐ τέλειος ὁ κόσμος· οὐδὲ γὰρ πάντα περιέχει … καὶ γὰρ ὁ ἄνθρωπός ἐστι τέλειος, ἀλλʼ οὐ πάντα περιέχει καὶ πολλὰ παραδείγματα ἔστιν, ὥσπερ ἐπʼ ἀνδριάντων καὶ οἰκιῶν καὶ ζῳγραφιῶν. πῶς δὲ τέλειος, εἴπερ ἔξωθέν τι αὐτοῦ περιδινεῖσθαι δύναται; ἄφθαρτος δʼ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲ δύναται εἶναι, γενητὸς ὤν. Μητρόδωρος δέ φησιν ἄτοπον εἶναι ἐν μεγάλῳ πεδίῳ ἕνα στάχυν γενηθῆναι καὶ ἕνα κόσμον ἐν τῷ ἀπείρῳ. ὅτι δʼ ἄπειρος κατὰ τὸ πλῆθος, δῆλον ἐκ τοῦ ἄπειρα τὰ αἴτια εἶναι· εἰ γὰρ ὁ μὲν κόσμος πεπερασμένος, ὅτι δʼ αἴτια πάντα ἄπειρα, ἐξ ὧν ὅδε ὁ κόσμος γέγονεν, ἀνάγκη ἀπείρους εἶναι. ὅπου γὰρ τὰ πάντα αἴτια, ἐκεῖ καὶ τὰ ἀποτελέσματα αἴτια δʼ ἤτοι αἱ ἄτομοι ἢ τὰ στοιχεῖα.

[¶19] 6. THE Stoics thus define the essence of a God. It is a spirit intellectual and fiery, which acknowledges no shape, but is continually changed into what it pleases, and assimilates itself to all things. The knowledge of this Deity they first received from the pulchritude of those things which so visibly appeared to us; for they concluded that nothing beauteous could casually or fortuitously be formed, but that it was framed from the art of a great understanding that produced the world. That the world is very resplendent is made perspicuous from the figure, the color, the magnitude of it, and likewise from the wonderful variety of those stars which adorn this world. The world is spherical; the orbicular hath the pre-eminence above all other figures, for being round itself it hath its parts likewise round. (On this account, according to Plato, the understanding, which is the most sacred part of man, is in the head.) The color of it is most beauteous; for it is painted with blue; which, though little blacker than purple, yet hath such a shining quality, that by reason of the vehement efficacy of its color it cuts through such an interval of air; whence it is that at so great a distance the heavens are to be contemplated. And in this very greatness of the world the beauty of it appears. View all things: that which contains the rest carries a beauty with it, as an animal or a tree. Also all things which are visible to us accomplish the beauty of the world. The oblique circle called the Zodiac in the heaven is with different images painted and distinguished:
There’s Cancer, Leo, Virgo, and the Claws;
Scorpio, Arcitenens, and Capricorn;
Amphora, Pisces, then the Ram, and Bull;
The lovely pair of Brothers next succeed. There are a thousand others that give us the suitable reflections of the beauty of the world. Thus Euripides:
The starry splendor of the skies,
The wondrous work of that most wise
Creator, Time. From this the knowledge of a God is conveyed to man; that the sun, the moon, and the rest of the stars, being carried under the earth, rise again in their proper color, magnitude, place, and times. Therefore they who by tradition delivered to us the knowledge and veneration of the Gods did it by these three manner of ways:—first, from Nature; secondly, from fables; thirdly, from the testimony given by the laws of commonwealths. Philosophers taught the natural way; poets, the fabulous; and the political way is received from the constitutions of each commonwealth. All sorts of this learning are distinguished into these seven parts. The first is from things that are conspicuous, and the observation of those bodies which are in places superior to us. To men the heavenly bodies that are so visible did give the knowledge of the Deity; when they contemplated that they are the causes of so great an harmony, that they regulate day and night, winter and summer, by their rising and setting, and likewise considered those things which by their influences in the earth do receive a being and do likewise fructify. It was manifest to men that the Heaven was the father of those things, and the Earth the mother; that the Heaven was the father is clear, since from the heavens there is the pouring down of waters, which have their spermatic faculty; the Earth the mother, because she receives them and brings forth. Likewise men considering that the stars are running (θέοντες) in a perpetual motion, that the sun and moon give us the power to view and contemplate (θεωρεῖν), they call them all Gods (θεούς). In the second and third place, they thus distinguished the Deities into those which are beneficial and those that are injurious to mankind. Those which are beneficial they call Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Ceres; those who are mischievous the Dirae, Furies, and Mars. These, which threaten dangers and violence, men endeavor to appease and conciliate by sacred rites. The fourth and the fifth order of Gods they assign to things and passions; to passions, Love, Venus, and Desire; the Deities that preside over things, Hope, Justice, and Eunomia. The sixth order of deities are those made by the poets; Hesiod, willing to find out a father for those Gods that acknowledge an original, invented their progenitors,
Hyperion, Coeus, and Iapetus,
With Creius; upon which account this is called the fabulous. The seventh rank of the deities added to the rest are those which, by their beneficence to mankind, were honored with a divine worship, though they were born of mortal race; of this sort were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, and Bacchus. These are reputed to be of a human species; for of all beings that which is divine is most excellent, and man amongst all animals is adorned with the greatest beauty, and is also the best, being distinguished by virtue above the rest because of his intellect: therefore it was thought that those who were admirable for goodness should resemble that which is the best and most beautiful.

> Greek: 6. ὁρίζονται δὲ τὴν τοῦ θεοῦ οὐσίαν οἱ Στωικοὶ οὕτω· πνεῦμα νοερὸν καὶ πυρῶδες οὐκ ἔχον μὲν μορφήν, μεταβάλλον δʼ εἰς ὃ βούλεται καὶ συνεξομοιούμενον πᾶσιν. ἔσχον δʼ ἔννοιαν τούτου πρῶτον μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ κάλλους τῶν ἐμφαινομένων προσλαμβάνοντες· οὐδὲν γὰρ τῶν καλῶν εἰκῆ καὶ ὡς ἔτυχε γίνεται, ἀλλὰ μετά τινος τέχνης δημιουργούσης. καλὸς δʼ ὁ κόσμος· δῆλον δʼ ἐκ τοῦ σχήματος καὶ τοῦ χρώματος καὶ τοῦ μεγέθους καὶ τῆς περὶ τὸν κόσμον τῶν ἀστέρων ποικιλίας. σφαιροειδὴς δʼ ὁ κόσμος ὃ πάντων τῶν σχημάτων πρωτεύει· μόνον γὰρ τοῦτο τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ μέρεσιν ὁμοιοῦται· περιφερὴς δʼ ὢν ἔχει τὰ μέρη περιφερῆ διὰ τοῦτο γὰρ κατὰ τὸν Πλάτωνα ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ τὸ ἱερώτατον συνέστηκε νοῦς. καὶ τὸ χρῶμα δὲ καλόν· κυανώσει γὰρ κέχρωσται, ὃ πορφύρας μέν ἐστι μελάντερον στίλβουσαν δʼ ἔχει τὴν ποιότητα· καὶ διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν τῷ τῆς χροιᾶς συντόνῳ διακόπτων τηλικαύτην ἀέρος ἀκόστασιν ἐκ τοσούτων διαστημάτων θεωρεῖται. καὶ ἐκ τοῦ μεγέθους καλός· πάντων γὰρ τῶν ὁμογενῶν τὸ περιέχον καλὸν ὡς ζῷον καὶ δένδρον. ἐπιτελεῖ τὸ κάλλος τοῦ κόσμου καὶ ταῦτα τὰ φαινόμενα· ὁ μὲν γὰρ λοξὸς κύκλος ἐν οὐρανῷ διαφόροις εἰδώλοις πεποίκιλται·
τῷ δ’ ἔνι καρκίνος ἐστί, λέων δ’ ἐπὶ τῷ, μετὰ δʼ αὐτὸν
παρθένος, ἠδʼ ἐπί οἱ χηλαὶ καὶ σκορπίος αὐτὸς
τοξευτής τε καὶ αἰγόκερως, ἐπὶ δʼ αἰγοκέρωτι
ὑδροχόος· δύο δʼ αὐτὸν ἐπʼ ἰχθύες ἀστερόεντες·
τοὺς δὲ μέτα κριός, ταῦρος δʼ ἐπὶ τῷ δίδυμοί τε.
μυρία δʼ ἄλλα καθʼ ὁμοίας τοῦ κόσμου περικλάσεις πεποίηκεν· ὅθεν καὶ Εὐριπίδης φησὶ
τὸ τʼ ἀστερωπὸν οὐρανοῦ σέλας,
χρόνου καλὸν ποίκιλμα, τέκτονος σοφοῦ.
ἐλάβομεν δʼ ἐκ τούτου ἔννοιαν θεοῦ· ἀεί τε γὰρ ἥλιος καὶ σελήνη καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ τῶν ἄστρων τὴν ὑπόγειον φορὰν ἐνεχθέντα ὅμοια μὲν ἀνατέλλει τοῖς χρώμασιν, ἴσα δὲ τοῖς μεγέθεσι καὶ κατὰ τόπους καὶ κατὰ χρόνους τοὺς αὐτούς. διόπερ οἱ τὸν περὶ τῶν θεῶν παραδόντες σεβασμὸν διὰ τριῶν ἐξέθηκαν ἡμῖν εἰδῶν, πρῶτον μὲν τοῦ φυσικοῦ, δεύτερον δὲ τοῦ μυθικοῦ, τρίτον δὲ τοῦ τὴν μαρτυρίαν ἐκ τῶν νόμων εἰληφότος, διοικεῖσθαι διδάσκεται δὲ τὸ μὲν φυσικὸν ὑπὸ τῶν φιλοσόφων, τὸ δὲ μυθικὸν ὑπὸ τῶν ποιητῶν, τὸ δὲ νομικὸν ὑφʼ ἑκάστης ἀεὶ πόλεως συνίσταται. διαιρεῖται δʼ ἡ πᾶσα διδαχὴ εἰς εἴδη ἑπτά· καὶ πρῶτον μὲν τὸ ἐκ τῶν φαινομένων καὶ μετεώρων· θεοῦ γὰρ ἔννοιαν ἔσχον ἀπὸ τῶν φαινομένων ἀστέρων, ὁρῶντες τούτους μεγάλης συμφωνίας ὄντας αἰτίους καὶ τεταγμένας ἀνατολάς τε καὶ δυσμάς, ἡμέρας τε καὶ νύκτας χειμῶνά τε καὶ θέρος, καὶ τὰ ὑπὸ τῆς γῆς ζῳογονούμενα καὶ καρπογονούμενα. διὸ· πατὴρ μὲν ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς οὐρανὸς ὑπάρχειν, μήτηρ δὲ γῆ· τούτων δʼ ὁ μὲν πατὴρ διὰ τὸ τὰς τῶν ὑδάτων ἐκχύσεις σπερμάτων ἔχειν τάξιν· ἡ δὲ γῆ μήτηρ διὰ τὸ δέχεσθαι ταῦτα καὶ τίκτειν· βλέποντες δὲ τοὺς ἀστέρας ἀεὶ θέοντας αἰτίους τε τοῦ θεωρεῖν ἡμᾶς ἥλιον καὶ σελήνην, θεοὺς προσηγόρευσαν. εἰς δεύτερον δὲ καὶ τρίτον τόπον τοὺς θεοὺς διεῖλον, εἴς τε τὸ βλάπτον καὶ τὸ ὠφελοῦν· καὶ τοὺς μὲν ὠφελοῦντας Δία Ἥραν Ἑρμῆν Δήμητραν τοὺς δὲ βλάπτοντας Ποινὰς Ἐρινύας Ἄρην, τούτους ἀφοσιούμενοι χαλεποὺς ὄντας καὶ βιαίους. τέταρτον καὶ πέμπτον προστεθείκασι τοῖς πράγμασι καὶ τοῖς πάθεσι, καθάπερ ἔρωτα Ἀφροδίτην Πόθον· πραγμάτων δʼ Ἐλπίδα Δίκην Εὐνομίαν. ἕκτον δὲ τόπον προσέλαβε τὸ ὑπὸ τῶν ποιητῶν πεπλασμένον· Ἡσίοδος γὰρ βουλόμενος τοῖς γενητοῖς θεοὺς πατέρας συστῆσαι εἰσήγαγε τοιούτους αὐτοῖς γεννήτορας κοῖόν τε Κρεῖὸν θʼ Ὑπερίονά τʼ Ἰαπετόν τε· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ μυθικὸν κέκληται. ἕβδομον δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ πᾶσι τὸ διὰ τὰς εἰς τὸν κοινὸν βίον εὐεργεσίας ἐκτετιμημένον ἀνθρώπινον δὲ γεννηθέν, ὡς Ἡρακλέα ὡς Διοσκόρους ὡς Διόνυσον. ἀνθρωποειδεῖς δʼ αὐτοὺς ἔφασαν εἶναι, διότι τῶν μὲν ἁπάντων τὸ θεῖον κυριώτατον, τῶν δὲ ζῴων ἄνθρωπος κάλλιστον καί, κεκοσμημένον ἀρετῇ διαφόρως κατὰ τὴν τοῦ νοῦ σύστασιν, τὸ κράτιστον. τοῖς οὖν ἀριστεύουσι τὸ κράτιστον ὁμοίως καὶ καλῶς ἔχειν διενοήθησαν.

## 2. Book I · chapters 7–30

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/2/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/2/#p-N

[¶0] 7. SOME of the philosophers, such as Diagoras the Melian, Theodorus the Cyrenean, and Euemerus the Tegeatan, did unanimously deny there were any Gods; and Callimachus the Cyrenean discovered his mind touching Euemerus in these Iambic verses, thus writing:
To th’ ante-mural temple flock apace,
Where he that long ago composed of brass
Great Jupiter, Thrasonic old bald pate,
Now writes his impious books,—a boastful ass! meaning books which denote there are no Gods. Euripides the tragedian durst not openly declare his sentiment; the court of Areopagus terrified him. Yet he sufficiently manifested his thoughts by this method. He presented in his tragedy Sisyphus, the first and great patron of this opinion, and introduced himself as one agreeing with him:
Disorder in those days did domineer,
And brutal power kept the world in fear. Afterwards by the sanction of laws wickedness was suppressed; but by reason that laws could prohibit only public villanies, yet could not hinder many persons from acting secret impieties, some wise persons gave this advice, that we ought to blind truth with lying disguises, and to persuade men that there is a God:
There’s an eternal God does hear and see
And understand every impiety;
Though it in dark recess or thought committed be. But this poetical fable ought to be rejected, he thought, together with Callimachus, who thus saith:
If you believe a God, it must be meant
That you conceive this God omnipotent. But God cannot do every thing; for, if it were so, then God could make snow black, and the fire cold, and him that is in a posture of sitting to be upright, and so on the contrary. The brave-speaking Plato pronounceth that God formed the world after his own image; but this smells rank of the old dotages, old comic poets would say; for how did God, casting his eye upon himself, frame this universe? Or how can God be spherical, and not be inferior to man? Anaxagoras avers that bodies did consist from all eternity, but the divine intellect did reduce them into their proper orders, and effected the origination of all beings. Plato did not suppose that the primary bodies had their consistence and repose, but that they were moved confusedly and in disorder; but God, knowing that order was better than confusion, did digest them into the best methods. Both these were equally peccant; for both suppose God to be the great moderator of human affairs, and for that cause to have formed this present world; when it is apparent that an immortal and blessed being, replenished with all his glorious excellencies, and not at all obnoxious to any sort of evil, but being wholly occupied with his own felicity and immortality, would not employ himself with the concerns of men; for certainly miserable is the being which, like a laborer or artificer, is molested by the troubles and cares which the forming and governing of this world must give him. Add to this, that the God whom these men profess was either not at all existing previous to this present world (when bodies were either reposed or in a disordered motion), or that then God did either sleep, or else was in a perpetual watchfulness, or that he did neither of these. Now neither the first nor the second can be entertained, because they suppose God to be eternal; if God from eternity was in a continual sleep, he was in an eternal death,—and what is death but an eternal sleep?—but no sleep can affect a Deity, for the immortality of God and alliance to death are vastly different. But if God was in a continual vigilance, either there was something wanting to make him happy, or else his beatitude was perfectly complete; but according to neither of these can God be said to be blessed; not according to the first, for if there be any deficiency there is no perfect bliss; not according to the second, for, if there be nothing wanting to the felicity of God, it must be a useless enterprise for him to busy himself in human affairs. And how can it be supposed that God administers by his own providence human concerns, when to vain and trifling persons prosperous things happen, to great and high adverse? Agamemnon was both “A virtuous prince, for warlike acts renowned,” and by an adulterer and adulteress was vanquished and perfidiously slain. Hercules, after he had freed the life of man from many things that were pernicious to it, perished by the witchcraft and poison of Deianira. Thales said that the intelligence of the world was God. Anaximander concluded that the stars were heavenly Deities. Democritus said that God, being a globe of fire, is intelligence and the soul of the world. Pythagoras says that, of his principles, unity is God; and the perfect good, which is indeed the nature of a unity, is mind itself; but the binary number, which is infinite, is a devil, and in its own nature evil,—about which the multitude of material beings, and this world which is the object of our eyes, are conversant. Socrates and Plato agree that God is that which is one, hath its original from its own self, is of a singular subsistence, is one only being perfectly good; all these various names signifying goodness do all centre in mind; hence God is to be understood as that mind and intellect, which is a separate idea, that is to say, pure and unmixed of all matter, and not twisted with any thing obnoxious to passions. Aristotle’s sentiment is, that God hath his residence in superior regions, and hath placed his throne in the sphere of the universe, and is a separate idea; which sphere is an ethereal body, which is by him styled the fifth essence or quintessence. For there is a division of the universe into spheres, which are contiguous by their nature but appear to reason to be separated; and he concludes that each of the spheres is an animal, composed of a body and soul; the body of them is ethereal, moved orbicularly, the soul is the rational form, which is unmoved, and yet is the cause that the sphere is actually in motion. The Stoics affirm that God is a thing more common and obvious, and is a mechanic fire which every way spreads itself to produce the world; it contains in itself all seminal virtues, and by this means all things by a fatal necessity were produced. This spirit, passing through the whole world, received various names from the mutations in the matter through which it ran in its journey. God therefore is the world, the stars, the earth, and (highest of all) the supreme mind in the heavens. In the judgment of Epicurus all the Gods are anthropomorphites, or have the shape of men; but they are perceptible only by reason, for their nature admits of no other manner of being apprehended, their parts being so small and fine that they give no corporeal representations. The same Epicurus asserts that there are four other natural beings which are immortal: of this sort are atoms, the vacuum, the infinite, and the similar parts; and these last are called Homoeomeries and likewise elements.

> Greek: 7. ἔνιοι τῶν φιλοσόφων, καθάπερ Διαγόρας ὁ Μήλιος καὶ Θεόδωρος ὁ Κυρηναῖος καὶ Εὐήμερος ὁ Τεγεάτης, καθόλου φασὶ μὴ εἶναι θεούς· τὸν δʼ Εὐήμερον καὶ Καλλίμαχος ὁ Κυρηναῖος αἰνίττεται ἐν τοῖς Ἰάμβοις γράφων
εἰς τὸ πρὸ τείχευς ἱερὸν ἁλέες δεῦτε,
οὗ τὸν πάλαι χάγκεον ὁ πλάσας Ζᾶνα
γέρων ἀλαζὼν ἄδικα βιβλία ψήχει
ταῦτʼ ἔστι τὰ περὶ τοῦ μὴ εἶναι θεούς. καὶ Εὐριπίδης δʼ ὁ τραγῳδοποιὸς ἀποκαλύψασθαι μὲν οὐκ ἠθέλησε, δεδοικὼς τὸν Ἄρειον πάγον· ἐνέφηνε δὲ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον τὸν γὰρ Σίσυφον εἰσήγαγε προστάτην ταύτης τῆς δόξης καὶ συνηγόρησεν αὐτοῦ ταύτῃ τῇ γνώμῃ ἦν γάρ χρόνος φησὶν
ὅτʼ ἦν ἄτακτος ἀνθρώπων βίος
καὶ θηριώδης ἰσχύος θʼ ὑπηρέτης·
ἔπειτα φησὶ τὴν ἀνομίαν λυθῆναι νόμων εἰσαγωγῇ· ἐπεὶ γὰρ ὁ νόμος τὰ φανερὰ τῶν ἀδικημάτων εἴργειν ἐδύνατο κρύφα δʼ ἠδίκουν πολλοί, τότε τις σοφὸς ἀνὴρ ἐπέστησεν, ὡς δεῖ ψευδεῖ λόγῳ τυφλῶσαι τὴν ἀλήθειαν καὶ πεῖσαι τοὺς ἀνθρώπους
ὡς ἔστι δαίμων ἀφθίτῳ θάλλων βίῳ,
ὃς ταῦτʼ ἀκούει καὶ βλέπει φρονεῖ τʼ ἄγαν.
ἀναιρείσθω γάρ, φησίν, ὁ ποιητικὸς λῆρος σὺν Καλλιμάχῳ τῷ λέγοντι
εἰ θεὸν οἶσθα,
ἴσθʼ ὅτι καὶ ῥέξαι δαίμονι πᾶν δυνατόν
οὐδὲ γὰρ ὁ θεὸς δύναται πᾶν ποιεῖν· ἐπεί τοί γε, εἰ θεὸς ἔστι, ποιείτω τὴν χιόνα μέλαιναν τὸ δὲ πῦρ ψυχρὸν τὸ δὲ καθήμενον ὀρθὸν καὶ τὸ ἐναντίον. καὶ γὰρ Πλάτων ὁ μεγαλόφωνος εἰπών ὁ θεὸς ἔπλασε τὸν κόσμον πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ὑπόδειγμα ὄζει λήρου βεκκεσελήνου, κατά γε τοὺς τῆς ἀρχαίας κωμῳδίας ποιητάς πῶς γὰρ αὑτῷ ἀτενίζων ἔπλασεν; ἢ πῶς σφαιροειδῆ τὸν θεόν, ὄντα ταπεινότερον ἀνθρώπου; ὁ δʼ Ἀναξαγόρας φησὶν ὡς εἱστήκει κατʼ ἀρχὰς τὰ σώματα, νοῦς δʼ αὐτὰ διεκόσμησε θεοῦ καὶ τὰς γενέσεις τῶν ὅλων ἐποίησεν. ὁ δὲ Πλάτων οὐχ ἑστηκότα ὑπέθετο τὰ πρῶτα σώματα ἀτάκτως δὲ κινούμενα διὸ καὶ ὁ θεός, φησίν, ἐπιστήσας ὡς τάξις ἀταξίας ἐστὶ βελτίων, διεκόσμησε ταῦτα. κοινῶς οὖν ἁμαρτάνουσιν ἀμφότεροι, ὅτι τὸν θεὸν ἐποίησαν ἐπιστρεφόμενον τῶν ἀνθρωπίνων ἢ καὶ τούτου χάριν τὸν κόσμον κατασκευάζοντα τὸ γὰρ μακάριον καὶ ἄφθαρτον ζῷον συμπεπληρωμένον τε πᾶσι τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς καὶ κακοῦ παντὸς ἄδεκτον, ὅλον ὂν περὶ τὴν συνοχὴν τῆς ἰδίας εὐδαιμονίας τε καὶ ἀφθαρσίας, ἀνεπιστρεφές ἐστι τῶν ἀνθρωπίνων πραγμάτων· κακοδαίμων δʼ ἂν εἴη, ἐργάτου δίκην καὶ τέκτονος ἀχθοφορῶν καὶ μεριμνῶν εἰς τὴν τοῦ κόσμου κατασκευήν. καὶ πάλιν ὁ θεὸς ὃν λέγουσιν ἤτοι τὸν ἔμπροσθεν αἰῶνα οὐκ ἦν, ὅτʼ ἦν ἀκίνητα τὰ σώματα, ἢ ἀτάκτως ἐκινεῖτο ἢ ἐκοιμᾶτο ἢ ἐγρηγόρει ἢ οὐδέτερον τούτων. καὶ οὔτε τὸ πρῶτον ἔστι δἐξασθαι, ὁ γὰρ θεὸς αἰώνιος· οὔτε τὸ δεύτερον, εἰ γὰρ ἐκοιμᾶτο ἐξ αἰῶνος ὁ θεός, ἐτεθνήκει αἰώνιος γὰρ ὕπνος ὁ θάνατός ἐστιν· ἀλλʼ οὐδὲ δεκτικὸς ὕπνου θεός, τὸ γὰρ ἀθάνατον τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τὸ ἐγγὺς θανάτου πολὺ κεχώρισται. εἰ δʼ ἦν ὁ θεὸς ἐγρηγορώς, ἤτοι ἐνέλειπεν εἰς εὐδαιμονίαν ἢ ἐπεπλήρωτο ἐν μακαριότητι· καὶ οὔτε κατὰ τὸ πρῶτον μακάριός ἐστιν ὁ θεός, τὸ γὰρ ἐλλεῖπον εἰς εὐδαιμονίαν οὐ μακάριον· οὔτε κατὰ τὸ δεύτερον, μηδὲν γὰρ ἐλλείπων κεναῖς ἔμελλεν ἐπιχειρεῖν πράξεσι. πῶς δέ, εἴπερ ὁ θεὸς ἔστι καὶ τῇ τούτου φροντίδι τὰ κατʼ ἄνθρωπον οἰκονομεῖται, τὸ μὲν κίβδηλον εὐτυχεῖ τὸ δʼ ἀστεῖον τἀναντία πάσχει; Ἀγαμέμνων τε γάρ ἀμφότερον βασιλεὺς τʼ ἀγαθὸς κρατερὸς τʼ αἰχμητής. ὑπὸ μοιχοῦ καὶ μοιχάδος ἡττηθεὶς ἐδολοφονήθη καὶ ὁ τούτου δὲ συγγενὴς Ἡρακλῆς πολλὰ τῶν ἐπιλυμαινομένων τὸν ἀνθρώπινον βίον καθάρας ὑπὸ Δηιανείρας φαρμακευθεὶς ἐδολοφονήθη. Θαλῆς νοῦν τοῦ κόσμου θεόν. Ἀναξίμανδρος τοὺς ἀπείρους οὐρανοὺς θεούς. Δημόκριτος νοῦν τὸν θεὸν ἑν πυρὶ σφαιροειδεῖ. Διογένης καὶ Κλεάνθης καὶ Οἰνοπίδης τὴν τοῦ κόσμου ψυχήν. Πυθαγόρας τῶν ἀρχῶν τὴν μὲν μονάδα θεὸν καὶ τἀγαθόν, ἥτις ἐστὶν ἡ τοῦ ἑνὸς φύσις, αὐτὸς ὁ νοῦς· τὴν δʼ ἀόριστον δυάδα δαίμονα καὶ τὸ κακόν, περὶ ἥν ἐστι τὸ ὑλικὸν πλῆθος, ἔστι δὲ καὶ ὁ ὁρατὸς κόσμος. Σωκράτης καὶ Πλάτων τὸ ἕν, τὸ μονοφυὲς καὶ αὐτοφυὲς τὸ μοναδικόν, τὸ ὄντως ἀγαθὸν πάντα δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ὀνομάτων εἰς τὸν νοῦν σπεύδει νοῦς οὖν ὁ θεός, χωριστὸν εἶδος, τουτέστι τὸ ἀμιγὲς πάσης ὕλης καὶ μηδενὶ παθητῷ συμπεπλεγμένον. Ἀριστοτέλης τὸν μὲν ἀνωτάτω θεὸν εἶδος χω ριστὸν ἐπιβεβηκότα τῇ σφαίρᾳ τοῦ παντός, ἣτις ἐστὶν αἰθέριον σῶμα, τὸ πέμπτον ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ καλούμενον διῃρημένου δὲ τούτου κατὰ σφαίρας, τῇ μὲν φύσει συναφεῖς τῷ λόγῳ δὲ κεχωρισμένας, ἑκάστην οἴεται τῶν σφαιρῶν ζῷον εἶναι σύνθετον ἐκ σώματος καὶ ψυχῆς, ὧν τὸ μὲν σῶμά ἐστιν αἰθέριον κινούμενον κυκλοφορικῶς, ἡ ψυχὴ δὲ λόγος ἀκίνητος αἴτιος τῆς κινήσεως κατʼ ἐνέργειαν. οἱ Στωικοὶ νοερὸν θεὸν ἀποφαίνονται πῦρ τεχνικὸν ὁδῷ βαδίζον ἐπὶ γένεσιν κόσμου ἐμπεριειληφὸς πάντας τοὺς σπερματικοὺς λόγους, καθʼ οὓς ἕκαστα καθʼ εἱμαρμένην γίνεται· καὶ πνεῦμα μὲν διῆκον διʼ ὅλου τοῦ κόσμου, τὰς δὲ προσηγορίας μεταλαμβάνον διὰ τὰς τῆς ὕλης, διʼ ἧς κεχώρηκε, παραλλάξεις· θεὸν δʼ καὶ τὸν κόσμον καὶ τοὺς ἀστέρας καὶ τὴν γῆν· τὸν δʼ ἀνωτάτω πάντων νοῦν ἐν αἰθέρι. Ἐπίκουρος ἀνθρωποειδεῖς μὲν πάντας τοὺς θεούς, λόγῳ δὲ πάντας τούτους θεωρητοὺς διὰ τὴν λεπτομέρειαν τῆς τῶν εἰδώλων φύσεως· ὁ δʼ αὐτὸς ἄλλως τέσσαρας φύσεις κατὰ γένος ἀφθάρτους τάσδε, τὰ ἄτομα τὸ κενὸν τὸ ἄπειρον τὰς ὁμοιότητας· αὗται δὲ λέγονται ὁμοιομέρειαι καὶ στοιχεῖα.

[¶1] 8. HAVING treated of the essence of the deities in a just order, it follows that we discourse of daemons and heroes. Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics do conclude that daemons are essences which are endowed with souls; that the heroes are the souls separated from their bodies, some are good, some are bad; the good are those whose souls are good, the evil those whose souls are wicked. All this is rejected by Epicurus.

> Greek: 8. παρακειμένως δὲ τῷ περὶ θεῶν λόγῳ τὸν περὶ δαιμόνων καὶ ἡρώων ἱστορητέον. Θαλῆς Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων οἱ Στωικοὶ δαίμονας ὑπάρχειν οὐσίας ψυχικάς· εἶναι δὲ καὶ ἥρωας τὰς κεχωρισμένας ψυχὰς τῶν σωμάτων, καὶ ἀγαθοὺς μὲν τὰς ἀγαθὰς κακοὺς δὲ τὰς φαύλας. Ἐπίκουρος δʼ οὐδὲν τούτων ἐγκρίνει.

[¶2] 9. MATTER is that first being which is substrate for generation, corruption, and all other alterations. The disciples of Thales and Pythagoras, with the Stoics, are of opinion that matter is changeable, mutable, convertible, and sliding through all things. The followers of Democritus aver that the vacuum, the atom, and the incorporeal substance are the first beings, and not obnoxious to passions. Aristotle and Plato affirm that matter is of that species which is corporeal, void of any form, species, figure, and quality, but apt to receive all forms, that she may be the nurse, the mother, and origin of all other beings. But they that do say that water, earth, air, and fire are matter do likewise say that matter cannot be without form, but conclude it is a body; but they that say that individual particles and atoms are matter do say that matter is without form.

> Greek: 9. ὕλη ἐστὶ τὸ ὑποκείμενον πρῶτον γενέσει καὶ φθορᾷ καὶ ταῖς ἄλλαις μεταβολαῖς. οἱ ἀπὸ Θάλεω καὶ Πυθαγόρου καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ τρεπτὴν καὶ ἀλλοιωτὴν καὶ μεταβλητὴν καὶ ῥευστὴν ὅλην διʼ ὅλης τὴν ὕλην. οἱ ἀπὸ Δημοκρίτου ἀπαθῆ τὰ πρῶτα, τὴν ἄτομον καὶ τὸ κενὸν καὶ τὸ ἀσώματον. Ἀριστοτέλης καὶ Πλάτων τὴν ὕλην σωματοειδῆ ἄμορφον ἀνείδεον ἀσχημάτιστον ἄποιον μὲν ὅσον ἐπὶ τῇ ἰδίᾳ φύσει, δεξαμενὴν δὲ τῶν εἰδῶν οἷον τιθήνην καὶ ἐκμαγεῖον καὶ μητέρα γενέσθαι. οἱ δʼ ὕδωρ λέγοντες ἢ γῆν ἢ πῦρ ἢ ἀέρα τὴν ὕλην οὐκέτι ἄμορφον αὐτὴν λέγουσιν ἀλλὰ σῶμα· οἱ δὲ τὰ ἀμερῆ καὶ τὰς ἀτόμους ἄμορφον.

[¶3] 10. AN idea is a being incorporeal, which has no subsistence by itself, but gives figure and form unto shapeless matter, and becomes the cause of its manifestation. Socrates and Plato conjecture that these ideas are essences separate from matter, having their existence in the understanding and fancy of the Deity, that is, of mind. Aristotle objected not to forms and ideas; but he doth not believe them separated from matter, or patterns of what God has made. Those Stoics, that are of the school of Zeno, profess that ideas are nothing else but the conceptions of our own mind.

> Greek: 10. ἰδέα ἐστὶν οὐσία ἀσώματος, αὐτὴ μὲν μὴ ὑφεστῶσα καθʼ αὑτήν, εἰκονίζουσα δὲ τὰς ἀμόρφους; ὔλας καὶ αἰτία γινομένη τῆς τούτων δείξεως. Σωκράτης καὶ Πλάτων χωριστὰς τῆς ὕλης οὐσίας τὰς ἰδέας ὑπολαμβάνει, ἐν τοῖς νοήμασι καὶ ταῖς· φαντασίαις τοῦ θεοῦ, τουτέστι τοῦ νοῦ, ὑφεστώσας. Ἀριστοτέλης δʼ εἴδη μὲν ἀπέλιπε καὶ ἰδέας, οὐ μὴν κεχωρισμένας τῆς ὕλης, ὃ ἐξ ὧν γεγονὸς τὸ ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ. οἱ ἀπὸ Ζήνωνος Στωικοὶ ἐννοήματα ἡμέτερα τὰς ἰδέας ἔφασαν.

[¶4] 11. A CAUSE is that by which any thing is produced, or by which any thing is effected. Plato gives this triple division of causes,—the material, the efficient, and the final cause; the principal cause he judges to be the efficient, which is the mind and intellect. Pythagoras and Aristotle judge the first causes are incorporeal beings, but those that are causes by accident or participation become corporeal substances; by this means the world is corporeal. The Stoics grant that all causes are corporeal, inasmuch as they are breath.

> Greek: 11. αἴτιόν ἐστι διʼ ὃ τὸ ἀποτέλεσμα ἢ διʼ ὃ συμβαίνει τι. Πλάτων τριχῶς τὸ αἴτιον· φησὶ γὰρ ὑφʼ οὗ ἐξ. οὗ πρὸς ὅ· κυριώτερον δʼ ἡγεῖται τὸ ὑφʼ οὗ· τοῦτο δʼ ἦν τὸ ποιοῦν, ὅ ἐστι νοῦς. Πυθαγόρας καὶ Ἀριστοτέλης τὰ μὲν πρῶτα αἴτια ἀσώματα, τὰ δὲ κατὰ μετοχὴν ἢ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς τῆς σωματικῆς ὑποστάσεως· ὥστʼ εἶναι τὸν κόσμον σῶμα. οἱ Στωικοὶ πάντα τὰ αἴτια σωματικά· πνεύματα γάρ.

[¶5] 12. A BODY is that being which hath these three dimensions, breadth, depth, and length;—or a bulk which makes a sensible resistance;—or whatsoever of its own nature possesseth a place. Plato saith that it is neither heavy nor light in its own nature, when it exists in its own place; but being in the place where another should be, then it has an inclination by which it tends to gravity or levity. Aristotle saith that, if we simply consider things in their own nature, the earth only is to be judged heavy, and fire light; but air and water are sometimes heavy and sometimes light. The Stoics think that of the four elements two are light, fire and air; two ponderous, earth and water; that which is naturally light doth by its own nature, not by any inclination, recede from its own centre; but that which is heavy doth by its own nature tend to its centre; for the centre is not a heavy thing of itself. Epicurus thinks that bodies are not to be limited; but the first bodies, which are simple bodies, and all those composed of them, all acknowledge gravity; that all atoms are moved, some perpendicularly, some obliquely; some are carried aloft either by direct impulse or with vibrations.

> Greek: 12. σῶμά ἐστι τὸ τριχῇ διαστατόν, πλάτει βάθει μήκει ἢ ὄγκος· ἀντίτυπος ὅσον ἐφʼ ἑαυτῷ· ἢ τὸ κατέχον τόπον. Πλάτων μήτε βαρὺ εἶναι μήτε κοῦφον τῇ φύσει ἔν γε τῷ οἰκείῳ τόπῳ ὑπάρχον ἐν δέ γε τῷ ἀλλοτρίῳ γενόμενον τότε νεῦσιν ἴσχειν· ἐκ δὲ τῆς νεύσεως ῥοπὴν ἤτοι πρὸς βαρύτητα ἢ κουφότητα. Ἀριστοτέλης βαρύτατον μὲν εἶναι τὴν γῆν ἁπλῶς, κουφότατον δὲ τὸ πῦρ· ἀέρα δὲ καὶ ὕδωρ ἄλλοτʼ ἄλλως. οἱ Στωικοὶ δύο μὲν ἐκ τῶν τεσσάρων στοιχείων κοῦφα, πῦρ καὶ ἀέρα· δύο δὲ βαρέα, ὕδωρ καὶ γῆν· κοῦφον γὰρ ὑπάρχει φύσει, ὃ νεύει ἀπὸ τοῦ ἰδίου μέσου· βαρὺ δὲ τὸ εἰς μέσον· βαρὺ δʼ οὐκ ἔστι τὸ μέσον. Ἐπίκουρος δʼ ἀπερίληπτα εἶναι τὰ σώματα καὶ τὰ πρῶτα δʼ ἁπλᾶ, τὰ δʼ ἐξ ἐκείνων συγκρίματα πάντα βάρος ἔχειν· κινεῖσθαι δὲ τὰ ἄτομα ποτὲ μὲν κατὰ στάθμην ποτὲ δὲ κατὰ παρέγκλισιν, τὰ δʼ ἄνω κινούμενα κατὰ πληγήν, κατὰ παλμόν.

[¶6] 13. EMPEDOCLES, precedent to the four elements, introduceth the most minute bodies which resemble elements; but they did exist before the elements, having similar parts and orbicular. Heraclitus brings in the smallest fragments, and those indivisible.

> Greek: 13. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς πρὸ τῶν τεσσάρων στοιχείων θραύσματα ἐλάχιστα, οἱονεὶ στοιχεῖα πρὶν στοιχείων, ὁμοιομερῆ, ὅ ἐστι στρογγύλα. Ἡράκλειτος ψηγμάτιά τινα ἐλάχιστα καὶ ἀμερῆ εἰσάγει.

[¶7] 14. A FIGURE is the exterior appearance, the circumscription, and the boundary of a body. The Pythagoreans say that the bodies of the four elements are spherical, fire being in the supremest place only excepted, whose figure is conical.

> Greek: 14. σχῆμά ἐστιν ἐπιφάνεια καὶ περιγραφὴ καὶ πέρας σώματος. οἱ ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου σφαιρικὰ τὰ σχήματα τῶν τεττάρων στοιχείων, μόνον δὲ τὸ ἀνώτατον πῦρ κωνοειδές.

[¶8] 15. COLOR is the visible quality of a body. The Pythagoreans called color the outward appearance of a body. Empedocles, that which is consentaneous to the passages of the eye. Plato, that they are fires emitted from bodies, which have parts harmonious for the sight. Zeno the Stoic, that colors are the first figurations of matter. The Pythagoreans, that colors are of four sorts, white and black, red and pale; and they derive the variety of colors from the diversity of the elements, and that seen in animals also from the variety of food and the air in which they live and are bred.

> Greek: 15. χρῶμά ἐστι ποιότης σώματος ὁρατή. οἱ Πυθαγορικοὶ χροιὰν ἐκάλουν τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν τοῦ σώματος. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὸ τοῖς πόροις τῆς ὄψεως ἐναρμόττον. Πλάτων. φλόγα ἀπὸ τῶν σωμάτων σύμμετρα μόρια ἔχουσαν πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν. Ζήνων ὁ Στωικὸς τὰ χρώματα πρώτους εἶναι σχηματισμοὺς τῆς ὕλης. οἱ ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου τὰ γένη τῶν χρωμάτων λευκόν τε καὶ μέλαν, ἐρυθρόν, ὠχρόν· τὰς δὲ διαφορὰς τῶν χρωμάτων παρὰ τὰς ποιὰς μίξεις τῶν στοιχείων τὰς δὲ τῶν ζῴων καὶ παρὰ τὰς ποικιλίας τῶν τροφῶν καὶ τῶν ἀέρων·

[¶9] 16. THE disciples of Thales and Pythagoras grant that all bodies are passible and divisible unto infinity. Others hold that atoms and indivisible parts are there fixed, and admit not of a division into infinity. Aristotle, that all bodies are potentially but not actually divisible into infinity.

> Greek: 16. οἱ ἀπὸ Θάλεω καὶ Πυθαγόρου παθητὰ τὰ σώματα καὶ τμητὰ εἰς ἄπειρον. οἱ τὰς ἀτόμους περὶ τὰ ἀμερῆ ἵστασθαι καὶ μὴ εἰς ἄπειρον εἶναι τὴν τομήν. Ἀριστοτέλης δυνάμει μὲν εἰς ἄπειρον ἐντελεχείᾳ δ’ οὐδαμῶς.

[¶10] 17. THE ancient philosophers held that the mixture of elements proceeded from the alteration of qualities; but the disciples of Anaxagoras and Democritus say it is done by apposition. Empedocles composes the elements of still smaller bulks, those which are the most minute and may be termed the elements of elements. Plato assigns three bodies (but he will not allow these to be elements, nor properly so called), air, fire, and water, which are mutable into one another; but the earth is mutable into none of these.

> Greek: 17. οἱ μὲν ἀρχαῖοι τὰς τῶν στοιχείων μίξεις κατʼ ἀλλοίωσιν. οἱ δὲ περὶ Ἀναξαγόραν καὶ Δημόκριτον κατὰ παράθεσιν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δʼ ἐκ μικροτέρων ὄγκων τὰ στοιχεῖα συγκρίνει, ἅπερ ἐστὶν ἐλάχιστα καὶ οἱονεὶ στοιχεῖα στοιχείων. Πλάτων τὰ μὲν τρία σώματα ʽοὐ γὰρ θέλει κυρίως αὐτὰ εἶναι στοιχεῖα ἢ προσονομάζεινʼ τρεπτὰ εἰς ἄλληλα, πῦρ ἀέρα ὕδωρ· τὴν δὲ γῆν εἴς τι τούτων ἀμετάβλητον.

[¶11] 18. ALL the natural philosophers from Thales to Plato rejected a vacuum. Empedocles says that there is nothing of a vacuity in nature, nor any thing superabundant. Leucippus, Democritus, Demetrius, Metrodorus, Epicurus, that the atoms are infinite in number; and that a vacuum is infinite in magnitude. The Stoics, that within the compass of the world there is no vacuum, but beyond it the vacuum is infinite. Aristotle, that the vacuum beyond the world is so great that the heaven has liberty to breathe into it, for the heaven is fiery.

> Greek: 18. οἱ ἀπὸ Θάλεω φυσικοὶ πάντες μέχρι Πλάτωνος τὸ κενὸν ἀπέγνωσαν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς οὐδέ τι τοῦ παντὸς κενεὸν πέλει οὐδὲ περισσόν. Λεύκιππος Δημόκριτος; Δημήτριος Μητρόδωρος Ἐπίκουρος τὰ μὲν ἄτομα ἄπειρα τῷ πλήθει, τὸ δὲ κενὸν ἄπειρον τῷ μεγέθει. οἱ Στωικοὶ ἐντὸς μὲν τοῦ κόσμου οὐδὲν εἶναι κενὸν ἔξωθεν δʼ αὐτοῦ ἄπειρον. Ἀριστοτέλης τοσοῦτον εἶναι τὸ κενὸν ἐκτὸς τοῦ κόσμου, ὥστʼ ἀναπνεῖν τὸν οὐρανόν· εἶναι γὰρ αὐτὸν πύρινον.

[¶12] 19. PLATO, to define place, calls it that thing which in its own bosom receives forms and ideas; by which metaphor he signifies matter, being (as it were) a nurse or receptacle of beings. Aristotle, that it is the ultimate superficies of the circumambient body, contiguous to that which it doth encompass.

> Greek: 19. Πλάτων τόπον εἶναι τὸ μεταληπτικὸν τῶν εἰδῶν, ὅπερ εἴρηκε μεταφορικῶς τὴν ὕλην, καθάπερ τινὰ τιθήνην καὶ δεξαμενήν. Ἀριστοτέλης τὸ ἔσχατον τοῦ περιέχοντος συνάπτον τῷ περιεχομένῳ.

[¶13] 20. THE Stoics and Epicureans make a place, a vacuum, and a space to differ. A vacuum is that which is void of any thing that may be called a body; place is that which is possessed by a body; a space that which is partly filled with a body, as a cask with wine.

> Greek: 20. οἱ Στωικοὶ καὶ Ἐπίκουρος διαφέρειν κενὸν τόπον χώραν καὶ τὸ μὲν κενὸν εἶναι ἐρημίαν σώματος, τὸν δὲ τόπον τὸ ἐχόμενον ὑπὸ σώματος τὴν δὲ χώραν τὸ ἐκ μέρους ἐχόμενον, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῆς τοῦ οἴνου πιθάκνης;.

[¶14] 21. IN the sense of Pythagoras, time is that sphere which encompasses the world. Plato says that it is a movable image of eternity, or the interval of the world’s motion. Eratosthenes, that it is the solar motion.

> Greek: 21. Πυθαγόρας τὸν χρόνον τὴν σφαῖραν τοῦ περιέχοντος εἶναι. Πλάτων αἰῶνος εἰκόνα κινητὴν ἢ διάστημα τῆς τοῦ κόσμου κινήσεως. Ἐρατοσθένης τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου πορείαν.

[¶15] 22. PLATO says that the heavenly motion is time. Most of the Stoics affirm that motion itself is time. Most philosophers think that time had no beginning; Plato, that time had only an ideal beginning.

> Greek: 22. Πλάτων οὐσίαν χρόνου τὴν τοῦ οὐρανοῦ κίνησιν. οἱ πλείους τῶν Στωικῶν αὐτὴν τὴν κίνησιν. καὶ οἱ μὲν πλείους ἀγένητον τὸν χρόνον, Πλάτων δὲ γενητὸν κατʼ ἐπίνοιαν.

[¶16] 23. PLATO and Pythagoras say that motion is a change and alteration in matter. Aristotle, that it is the actual operation of that which may be moved. Democritus, that there is but one sort of motion, and it is that which is vibratory. Epicurus, that there are two species of motion, one perpendicular, and the other oblique. Herophilus, that one species of motion is obvious only to reason, the other to sense. Heraclitus utterly denies that there is any thing of quiet or repose in nature; for that is the state of the dead; one sort of motion is eternal, which he assigns to beings eternal, the other perishable, to those things which are perishable.

> Greek: 23. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων κίνησίς ἐστι διαφορά τις ἢ ἑτερότης ἐν ὕλῃ. Ἀριστοτέλης, ἐντελέχεια κινητοῦ. Δημόκριτος, ἓν γένος τῆς κινήσεως τὸ κατὰ παλμόν. Ἐπίκουρος, δύο εἴδη τῆς κινήσεως, τὸ κατὰ στάθμην καὶ τὸ κατὰ παρέγκλισιν. Ἡρόφιλος κινήσεως τὴν μὲν λόγῳ θεωρητὴν τὴν δʼ αἰσθητήν. Ἡράκλειτος ἠρεμίαν μὲν καὶ στάσιν ἐκ τῶν ὅλων ἀνῄρει ἔστι γὰρ τοῦτο τῶν νεκρῶν· κίνησιν δʼ ἀίδιον μὲν τοῖς ἀιδίοις φθαρτὴν δὲ τοῖς φθαρτοῖς.

[¶17] 24. PARMENIDES, Melissus, and Zeno deny that there are any such things as generation and corruption, for they suppose that the universe is unmovable. Empedocles, Epicurus, and other philosophers that combine in this, that the world is framed of small corporeal particles meeting together, affirm that corruption and generation are not so properly to be accepted; but there are conjunctions and separations, which do not consist in any alteration according to their qualities, but are made according to quantity by coalition or disjunction. Pythagoras, and all those who take for granted that matter is subject to mutation, say that generation and corruption are to be accepted in their proper sense, and that they are accomplished by the alteration, mutation, and dissolution of elements.

> Greek: 24. Παρμενίδης Μέλισσος Ζήνων ἀνῄρουν γένεσιν καὶ φθορὰν διὰ τὸ νομίζειν τὸ πᾶν ἀκίνητον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δὲ καὶ Ἐπίκουρος καὶ πάντες, ὅσοι κατὰ συναθροισμὸν τῶν λεπτομερῶν σωμάτων κοσμοποιοῦσι, συγκρίσεις μὲν καὶ διακρίσεις εἰσάγουσι, γενέσεις δὲ καὶ φθορὰς οὐ κυρίως· οὐ γὰρ κατὰ τὸ ποιὸν ἐξ ἀλλοιώσεως, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ποσὸν ἐκ συναθροισμοῦ ταύτας γίνεσθαι. Πυθαγόρας καὶ πάντες, ὅσοι παθητὴν τὴν ὕλην ὑποτίθενται, κυρίως γένεσιν καὶ φθορὰν γίνεσθαι ἐκ γὰρ ἀλλοιώσεως στοιχείων καὶ τροπῆς καὶ ἀναλύσεως ταῦτα γίνεσθαι.

[¶18] 25. THALES says that necessity is omnipotent, and that it exerciseth an empire over every thing. Pythagoras, that the world is invested by necessity. Parmenides and Democritus, that there is nothing in the world but what is necessarily, and that this same necessity is otherwise called fate, justice, providence, and the architect of the world.

> Greek: 25. Θαλῆς· ἰσχυρότατον ἀνάγκη, κρατεῖ γὰρ τοῦ παντός. Πυθαγόρας ἀνάγκην ἔφη περικεῖσθαι τῷ κόσμῳ. Παρμενίδης καὶ Δημόκριτος πάντα κατʼ ἀνάγκην τὴν αὐτὴν δʼ εἶναι εἱμαρμένην καὶ δίκην καὶ πρόνοιαν καὶ κοσμοποιόν.

[¶19] 26. PLATO distinguisheth and refers some things to Providence, others to necessity. Empedocles makes the nature of necessity to be that cause which employs principles and elements. Democritus makes it to be a resistance, impulse, and force of matter. Plato sometimes says that necessity is matter; at other times, that it is the habitude or respect of the efficient cause towards matter.

> Greek: 26. Πλάτων τὰ μὲν εἰς πρόνοιαν ἀνάγει τὰ δʼ εἰς ἀνάγκην. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς οὐσίαν ἀνάγκης αἰτίαν χρηστικὴν τῶν ἀρχῶν καὶ τῶν στοιχείων. Δημόκριτος τὴν ἀντιτυπίαν καὶ φορὰν καὶ πληγὴν τῆς ὕλης· Πλάτων ὁτὲ μὲν τὴν ὕλην ὁτὲ δὲ τὴν τοῦ ποιοῦντος πρὸς τὴν ὕλην σχέσιν.

[¶20] 27. HERACLITUS, who attributes all things to fate, makes necessity to be the same thing with it. Plato admits of a necessity in the minds and the actions of men, but yet he introduceth a cause which flows from ourselves. The Stoics, in this agreeing with Plato, say that necessity is a cause invincible and violent; that fate is the ordered complication of causes, in which there is an intexture of those things which proceed from our own determination, so that some things are to be attributed to fate, others not.

> Greek: 27. Ἡράκλειτος πάντα καθʼ εἱμαρμένην, τὴν δʼ αὐτὴν ὑπάρχειν καὶ ἀνάγκην. Πλάτων ἐγκρίνει μὲν τὴν εἱμαρμένην ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρωπίνων ψυχῶν καὶ βίων, συνεισάγει δὲ καὶ τὴν παρʼ ἡμᾶς αἰτίαν. οἱ Στωικοὶ Πλάτωνι ἐμφερῶς, καὶ τὴν μὲν ἀνάγκην ἀνίκητόν φασιν αἰτίαν καὶ βιαστικήν, τὴν δʼ εἱμαρμένην συμπλοκὴν αἰτιῶν τεταγμένην, ἐν συμπλοκῇ καὶ τὸ παρʼ ἡμᾶς, ὥστε τὰ μὲν εἱμάρθαι τὰ δʼ ἀνειμάρθαι.

[¶21] 28. ACCORDING to Heraclitus, the essence of fate is a certain reason which penetrates the substance of all being; and this is an ethereal body, containing in itself that seminal faculty which gives an original to every being in the universe. Plato declares that it is the eternal reason and the eternal law of the nature of the universe. Chrysippus, that it is a spiritual faculty, which in due order doth manage and rule the universe. Again, in his book styled the Definitions, that fate is the reason of the world, or that it is that law whereby Providence rules and administers every thing that is in the world; or it is that reason by which all things past have been, all things present are, and all things future will be. The Stoics say that it is a chain of causes, that is, it is an order and connection of causes which cannot be resisted. Posidonius, that it is a being the third in degree from Jupiter; the first of beings is Jupiter, the second nature, and the third fate.

> Greek: 28. Ἡράκλειτος οὐσίαν εἱμαρμένης λόγον τὸν διὰ τῆς οὐσίας τοῦ παντὸς διήκοντα· αὕτη δʼ ἐστὶ τὸ αἰθέριον σῶμα, σπέρμα τῆς τοῦ παντὸς γενέσεως. Πλάτων λόγον ἀίδιον καὶ νόμον ἀίδιον τῆς τοῦ παντὸς φύσεως. Χρύσιππος δύναμιν πνευματικὴν τάξει τοῦ παντὸς διοικητικήν καὶ πάλιν ἐν τοῖς Ὅροις εἱμαρμένη ἐστὶν ὁ τοῦ κόσμου λόγος ἢ νόμος τῶν ὄντων ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ προνοίᾳ διοικουμένων ἢ λόγος, καθʼ ὃν τὰ μὲν γεγονότα γέγονε τὰ δὲ γινόμενα γίνεται τὰ δὲ γενησόμενα γενήσεται. οἱ Στωικοὶ εἱρμὸν αἰτιῶν, τουτέστι τάξιν καὶ ἐπισύνδεσιν ἀπαράβατον. Ποσειδώνιος τρίτην ἀπὸ Διός· πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ εἶναι τὸν Δία, δεύτερον δὲ τὴν φύσιν, τρίτον δὲ τὴν εἱμαρμένην.

[¶22] 29. PLATO says, that it is an accidental cause and a casual consequence in things which proceed from the election and counsel of men. Aristotle, that it is an accidental cause in those things which are done by an impulse to a certain end; and this cause is uncertain and unstable: there is a great deal of difference betwixt that which flows from chance and that which falls out by Fortune; for that which is fortuitous admits also of chance, and belongs to things practical; but what is by chance cannot be also by Fortune, for it belongs to things without action: Fortune, moreover, belongs to rational beings, but chance to rational and irrational beings alike, and even to inanimate things. Epicurus, that it is a cause not always consistent, but various as to persons, times, and manners. Anaxagoras and the Stoics, that it is that cause which human reason cannot comprehend; for there are some things which proceed from necessity, some things from Fate, some from choice and free-will, some from Fortune, some from chance.

> Greek: 29. Πλάτων αἰτίαν ἐν προαιρετικοῖς κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς καὶ παρακολούθημα. Ἀριστοτέλης αἰτίαν κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς ἐν τοῖς καθʼ ὁρμὴν ἕνεκά τινος γινομένοις, ἄδηλον καὶ ἄστατον. διαφέρειν δὲ τῆς τύχης τὸ αὐτόματον· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἀπὸ τύχης καὶ ταὐτομάτου εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πρακτέοις πάντως τὸ δʼ αὐτόματον οὐκ ἀπὸ τύχης, ἐν γὰρ τοῖς ἔξω πράξεως· καὶ τὴν μὲν τύχην τῶν λογικῶν, τὸ δʼ αὐτόματον καὶ τῶν λογικῶν καὶ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων καὶ τῶν ἀψύχων σωμάτων. Ἐπίκουρος ἄστατον αἰτίαν προσώποις χρόνοις τόποις. Ἀναξαγόρας καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ ἄδηλον αἰτίαν ἀνθρωπίνῳ λογισμῷ· ἃ μὲν γὰρ εἶναι κατʼ ἀνάγκην, ἃ δὲ καθʼ εἱμαρμένην ἃ δὲ κατὰ προαίρεσιν, ἃ δὲ κατὰ τύχην, ἃ δὲ κατὰ τὸ αὐτόματον.

[¶23] 30. EMPEDOCLES believes that Nature is nothing else but the mixture and separation of the elements; for thus he writes in the first book of his natural philosophy:
Nature gives neither life nor death,
Mutation makes us die or breathe.
The elements first are mixed, then all
Do separate: this mortals Nature call. Anaxagoras is of the same opinion, that Nature is coalition and separation, that is, generation and corruption. HAVING finished my dissertation concerning principles and elements and those things which chiefly appertain to them, I will turn my pen to discourse of those things which are produced by them, and will take my beginning from the world, which contains and encompasseth all beings.

> Greek: 30. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς φύσιν μηδενὸς εἶναι, μῖξιν δὲ τῶν στοιχείων καὶ διάστασιν. γράφει γὰρ οὕτως ἐν τῷ πρώτῳ Φυσικῶν
ἄλλο δέ τοι ἐρέω φύσις οὐδενός ἐστιν ἁπάντων
θνητῶν, οὐδέ τις οὐλομένου θανάτοιο τελευτή,
ἀλλὰ μόνον μῖξίς τε διάλλαξίς τε μιγέντων
ἐστί, φύσις δὲ βροτοῖς ὀνομάζεται ἀνθρώποισιν. Ἀναξαγόρας· ὁμοίως τὴν φύσιν σύγκρισιν καὶ διάκρισιν, τουτέστι γένεσιν καὶ φθοράν. τετελεκὼς τοίνυν τὸν περὶ ἀρχῶν καὶ στοιχείων καὶ τῶν συνεδρευόντων αὐτοῖς λόγον τρέψομαι πρὸς τὸν περὶ τῶν ἀποτελεσμάτων, ἀπὸ τοῦ περιεκτικωτάτου πάντων ἐνστησάμενος.

## 3. Book II

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/3/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/3/#p-N

[¶0] 1. PYTHAGORAS was the first philosopher that gave the name of χόσμος to the world, from the order and beauty of it; for so that word signifies. Thales and his followers say the world is one. Democritus, Epicurus, and their scholar Metrodorus affirm that there are infinite worlds in an infinite space, for that infinite vacuum in its whole extent contains them. Empedocles, that the circle which the sun makes in its motion circumscribes the world, and that circle is the utmost bound of the world. Seleucus, that the world knows no limits. Diogenes, that the universe is infinite, but this world is finite. The Stoics make a difference between that which is called the universe, and that which is called the whole world;—the universe is the infinite space considered with the vacuum, the vacuity being removed gives the right conception of the world; so that the universe and the world are not the same thing.

> Greek: 1. Πυθαγόρας πρῶτος ὠνόμασε τὴν τῶν ὅλων περιοχὴν κόσμον ἐκ τῆς ἐν αὐτῷ τάξεως. Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ ἕνα τὸν κόσμον. Δημόκριτος καὶ Ἐπίκουρος καὶ ὁ τούτου καθηγητὴς Μητρόδωρος ἀπείρους κόσμους ἐν τῷ ἀπείρῳ κατὰ πᾶσαν περίστασιν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὸν τοῦ ἡλίου περίδρομον εἶναι περιγραφὴν τοῦ πέρατος τοῦ κόσμου. Σέλευκος ἄπειρον τὸν κόσμον. Διογένης τὸ μὲν πᾶν ἄπειρον, τὸν δὲ κόσμον πεπεράνθαι. οἱ Στωικοὶ διαφέρειν τὸ πᾶν καὶ τὸ ὅλον· πᾶν μὲν γὰρ εἶναι τὸ σὺν τῷ κενῷ τῷ ἀπείρῳ, ὅλον δὲ χωρὶς τοῦ κενοῦ τὸν κόσμον· ὥστε οὐ τὸ αὐτὸ εἶναι τὸ ὅλον καὶ τὸν κόσμον.

[¶1] 2. THE Stoics say that the figure of the world is spherical, others that it is conical, others oval. Epicurus, that the figure of the world may be globular, or that it may admit of other shapes.

> Greek: 2. οἱ μὲν Στωικοὶ σφαιροειδῆ τὸν κόσμον, ἄλλοι δὲ κωνοειδῆ, οἱ δʼ ᾠοειδῆ. Ἐπίκουρος δʼ ἐνδέχεσθαι μὲν εἶναι σφαιροειδεῖς τοὺς κόσμους, ἐνδέχεσθαι δὲ καὶ ἑτέροις σχήμασι κεχρῆσθαι.

[¶2] 3. DEMOCRITUS, Epicurus, and those philosophers who introduced atoms and a vacuum, affirm that the world is not an animal, nor governed by any wise Providence, but that it is managed by a nature which is void of reason. All the other philosophers affirm that the world is informed with a soul, and governed by reason and Providence. Aristotle is excepted, who is somewhat different; he is of opinion, that the whole world is not acted by a soul in every part of it, nor hath it any sensitive, rational, or intellectual faculties, nor is it guided by reason and Providence in every part of it; of all which the heavenly bodies are made partakers, for the circumambient spheres are animated and are living beings; but those things which are about the earth are void of those endowments; and though those terrestrial bodies are of an orderly disposition, yet that is casual and not primogenial.

> Greek: 3. οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι πάντες ἔμψυχον τὸν κόσμον καὶ προνοίᾳ διοικούμενον. Δημόκριτος δὲ καὶ Ἐπίκουρος καὶ ὅσοι τὰ ἄτομα εἰσηγοῦνται καὶ τὸ κενὸν οὔτʼ ἔμψυχον οὔτε προνοίᾳ διοικεῖσθαι, φύσει δέ τινι ἀλόγῳ. Ἀριστοτέλης οὔτʼ ἔμψυχον ὅλον διʼ ὅλων, οὔτε μὴν αἰσθητικὸν οὔτε λογικὸν οὔτε νοερὸν οὔτε προνοίᾳ διοικούμενον τὰ μὲν γὰρ οὐράνια τούτων ἁπάντων κοινωνεῖν, σφαίρας γὰρ περιέχειν ἐμψύχους καὶ ζωτικάς· τὰ δὲ περίγεια μηδενὸς αὐτῶν, τῆς δʼ εὐταξίας κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς οὐ προηγουμένως μετέχειν.

[¶3] 4. PYTHAGORAS [and Plato], with the Stoics, affirm that the world was framed by God, and being corporeal is obvious to the senses, and in its own nature is obnoxious to destruction; but it shall never perish, it being preserved by the providence of God. Epicurus, that the world had a beginning, and so shall have an end, as plants and animals have. Xenophanes, that the world never had a beginning, is eternal and incorruptible. Aristotle, that the part of the world which is sublunary is obnoxious to change, and there terrestrial beings find a decay.

> Greek: 4. Πυθαγόρας καὶ Πλάτων καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ γενητὸν ὑπὸ θεοῦ τὸν κόσμον· καὶ φθαρτὸν μὲν ὅσον ἐπὶ τῇ φύσει, αἰσθητὸν γὰρ εἶναι διότι καὶ σωματικὸν οὐ μὴν φθαρησόμενόν γε προνοίᾳ καὶ συνοχῇ θεοῦ. Ἐπίκουρος φθαρτόν, ὅτι καὶ γενητόν, ὡς ζῷον ὡς φυτόν. Ξενοφάνης ἀγένητον καὶ ἀίδιον καὶ ἄφθαρτον τὸν κόσμον. Ἀριστοτέλης τὸ ὑπὸ τὴν σελήνην τοῦ κόσμου μέρος παθητόν, ἐν ᾧ καὶ τὰ περίγεια κηραίνεται.

[¶4] 5. ARISTOTLE says that, if the world be nourished, it will likewise be dissolved; but it requires no aliment, and will therefore be eternal. Plato, that this very world prepares for itself a nutriment, by the alteration of those things which are corruptible in it. Philolaus believes that a destruction happens to the world in two ways; either by fire falling from heaven, or by the lunary water being poured down through the whirling of the air; and the exhalations proceeding from thence are the aliment of the world.

> Greek: 5. Ἀριστοτέλης· εἰ τρέφεται ὁ κόσμος, καὶ φθαρήσεται· ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδεμιᾶς τινος ἐπιδεῖται τροφῆς· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἀίδιος. Πλάτων αὐτὸν αὑτῷ τὸν κόσμον ἐκ τοῦ φθίνοντος κατὰ μεταβολὴν τὸ τρέφον παρέχεσθαι. Φιλόλαος διττὴν εἶναι τὴν φθοράν, τὸ μὲν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ πυρὸς ῥυέντος, τὸ δʼ ἐξ ὕδατος σεληνιακοῦ περιστροφῇ τοῦ ἀέρος ἀποχυθέντος· καὶ τούτων εἶναι τὰς ἀναθυμιάσεις τροφὰς τοῦ κόσμου.

[¶5] 6. THE natural philosophers pronounce that the forming of this world took its original from the earth, it being its centre, for the centre is the principal part of the globe. Pythagoras, from the fire and the fifth element. Empedocles determines, that the first and principal element separated from the rest was the ether, then fire, after that the earth, which earth being strongly compacted by the force of a violent revolution, water springs from it, the exhalations of which water produce the air; the heaven took its origin from the ether, and fire gave a being to the sun; those things that belong to the earth are condensed from the remainders. Plato, that the visible world was framed after the exemplar of the intellectual world; the soul of the visible world was first produced, then the corporeal figure, first that which came from fire and earth, afterwards that which came from air and water. Pythagoras, that the world was formed of five solid figures which are called mathematical; the earth was produced by the cube, the fire by the pyramid, the air by the octahedron, the water by the icosahedron, and the globe of the universe by the dodecahedron. In all these Plato hath the same sentiments with Pythagoras.

> Greek: 6. οἱ φυσικοὶ ἀπὸ γῆς ἄρξασθαί φασι τὴν γένεσιν τοῦ κόσμου καθάπερ ἀπὸ κέντρου· ἀρχὴ δὲ σφαίρας τὸ κέντρον. Πυθαγόρας ἀπὸ πυρὸς καὶ τοῦ πέμπτου στοιχείου. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὸν μὲν αἰθέρα πρῶτον διακριθῆναι, δεύτερον δὲ τὸ πῦρ, ἐφʼ ᾧ τὴν γῆν, ἐξ ἧς ἄγαν περισφιγγομένης τῇ ῥύμῃ τῆς περιφορᾶς ἀναβλύσαι τὸ ὕδωρ ἐξ οὗ ἀναθυμιαθῆναι τὸν ἀέρα καὶ γενέσθαι τὸν μὲν οὐρανὸν ἐκ τοῦ αἰθέρος τὸν δʼ ἥλιον ἐκ τοῦ πυρός, πιληθῆναι δʼ ἐκ τῶν ἄλλων τὰ περίγεια. Πλάτων ὁρατὸν τὸν κόσμον γεγονέναι πρὸς παράδειγμα τοῦ νοητοῦ κόσμου· τοῦ δʼ ὁρατοῦ κόσμου προτέραν μὲν εἶναι τὴν ψυχήν, μετὰ δὲ ταύτην τὸ σωματοειδὲς τὸ ἐκ πυρὸς μὲν καὶ γῆς πρῶτον ὕδατος δὲ καὶ ἀέρος δεύτερον. Πυθαγόρας, πέντε σχημάτων ὄντων στερεῶν, ἅπερ καλεῖται καὶ μαθηματικά, ἐκ μὲν τοῦ κύβου φησὶ γεγονέναι τὴν γῆν, ἐκ δὲ τῆς πυραμίδος τὸ πῦρ, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ ὀκταέδρου τὸν ἀέρα, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ εἰκοσαέδρου τὸ ὕδωρ, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ δωδεκαέδρου τὴν τοῦ παντὸς σφαῖραν. Πλάτων δὲ καὶ ἐν τούτοις πυθαγορίζει.

[¶6] 7. PARMENIDES believes that there are small coronets alternately twisted one within another, some made up of a thin, others of a condensed matter; and there are others between them mixed mutually together of light and of darkness, and about them all there is a solid substance, which like a firm wall surrounds these coronets. Leucippus and Democritus wrap the world round about, as with a garment and membrane. Epicurus says that that which bounds some worlds is thin, and that which limits others is gross and condensed; and of these worlds some are in motion, others are fixed. Plato, that fire takes the first place in the world, the second the ether, after that the air, under that the water; the last place the earth possesseth: sometimes he puts the ether and the fire in the same place. Aristotle gives the first place to the ether, as that which is impassible, it being a kind of fifth body; after which he placeth those that are passible, fire, air, and water, and last of all the earth. To those bodies that are accounted celestial he assigns a motion that is circular, but to those that are seated under them, if they be light bodies, an ascending, if heavy, a descending motion. Empedocles, that the places of the elements are not always fixed and determined, but they all succeed one another in their respective stations.

> Greek: 7. Παρμενίδης στεφάνας εἶναι περιπεπλεγμένας ἐπαλλήλους, τὴν μὲν ἐκ τοῦ ἀραιοῦ τὴν δʼ ἐκ τοῦ πυκνοῦ· μικτὰς δʼ ἄλλας ἐκ φωτὸς καὶ σκότους μεταξὺ τούτων· καὶ τὸ περιέχον δὲ πάσας τείχους δίκην στερεὸν ὑπάρχειν. Λεύκιππος καὶ Δημόκριτος χιτῶνα κύκλῳ καὶ ὑμένα περιτείνουσι τῷ κόσμῳ· Ἐπίκουρος ἐνίων μὲν κόσμων ἀραιὸν τὸ πέρας ἐνίων δὲ πυκνόν, καὶ τούτων τὰ μέν τινα κινούμενα τὰ δʼ ἀκίνητα. Πλάτων πῦρ πρῶτον εἶτʼ αἰθέρα μεθʼ ὃν ἀέρα ἐφʼ ᾧ ὕδωρ, τελευταίαν δὲ γῆν· ἐνίοτε δὲ τὸν αἰθέρα τῷ πυρὶ συνάπτει. Ἀριστοτέλης πρῶτον μὲν αἰθέρα ἀπαθῆ, πέμπτον δή τι σῶμα· μεθʼ ὃν παθητὰ πῦρ ἀέρα ὕδωρ τελευταίαν δὲ γῆν. τούτων δὲ τοῖς μὲν οὐρανίοις ἀποδεδόσθαι τὴν κυκλικὴν κίνησιν, τῶν δʼ ὑπʼ ἐκεῖνα τεταγμένων τοῖς μὲν κούφοις τὴν ἄνω τοῖς. δὲ βαρέσι τὴν κάτω. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς μὴ διὰ παντὸς ἑστῶτας εἶναι μηδʼ ὡρισμένους τοὺς τόπους τῶν στοιχείων, ἀλλὰ πανταχῶς ἀλλήλων μεταλαμβάνειν.

[¶7] 8. DIOGENES and Anaxagoras affirm that, after the world was composed and the earth had produced living creatures, the world out of its own propensity made an inclination towards the south. Perhaps this may be attributed to a wise Providence (they say), that thereby some parts of the world may be habitable, others uninhabitable, according as the various climates are affected with a rigorous cold, or a scorching heat, or a just temperament of cold and heat. Empedocles, that the air yielding to the impetuous force of the solar rays, the pole received an inclination; whereby the northern parts were exalted and the southern depressed, by which means the whole world received its inclination.

> Greek: 8. Διογένης καὶ Ἀναξαγόρας μετὰ τὸ συστῆναι τὸν κόσμον καὶ ζῷα ἐκ τῆς γῆς ἐξαγαγεῖν; ἐγκλιθῆναί πως τὸν κόσμον ἐκ τοῦ αὐτομάτου εἰς τὸ μεσημβρινὸν αὑτοῦ μέρος, ἴσως ὑπὸ, προνοίας, ἵνʼ ἃ μὲν ἀοίκητα γένηται ἃ δʼ οἰκητὰ μέρη τοῦ κόσμου, κατὰ ψῦξιν καὶ ἐκπύρωσιν καὶ εὐκρασίαν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, τοῦ ἀέρος εἴξαντος τῇ τοῦ ἡλίου ὁρμῇ, ἐγκλιθῆναι τὰς ἄρκτους, καὶ τὰ μὲν βόρεια ὑψωθῆναι τὰ δὲ νότια ταπεινωθῆναι, καθʼ ὃ καὶ τὸν ὅλον κόσμον.

[¶8] 9. PYTHAGORAS and his followers say that beyond the world there is a vacuum, into which and out of which the world hath its respiration. The Stoics, that there is a vacuum into which the infinite world by a conflagration shall be dissolved. Posidonius, not an infinite vacuum, but as much as suffices for the dissolution of the world; and this he asserts in his first book concerning the Vacuum. Aristotle affirms, that there is no vacuum. Plato concludes that neither within nor without the world there is any vacuum.

> Greek: 9. οἱ μὲν· ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου ἐκτὸς εἶναι τοῦ κόσμου κενόν, εἰς ὃ ἀναπνεῖ ὁ κόσμος καὶ ἐξ οὗ. οἱ δὲ Στωικοί, εἰς ὃ κατὰ τὴν ἐκπύρωσιν ἀναλύεται τὸ ἄπειρον. Ποσειδώνιος οὐκ ἄπειρον, ἀλλʼ ὅσον αὔταρκες εἰς τὴν διάλυσιν, ἐν τῷ πρώτῳ Περὶ κενοῦ. Ἀριστοτέλης μηδὲν εἶναι κενόν. Πλάτων μήτʼ ἐκτὸς τοῦ κόσμου μήτʼ ἐντὸς μηδὲν εἶναι κενόν.

[¶9] 10. PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the eastern parts of the world, from whence motion commences, are of the right, those of the western are of the left-hand of the world. Empedocles, that those that are of the right-hand are towards the summer solstice, those of the left towards the winter solstice.

> Greek: 10. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων Ἀριστοτέλης δεξιὰ τοῦ κόσμου τὰ ἀνατολικὰ μέρη, ἀφʼ ὧν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως, ἀριστερὰ δὲ τὰ δυτικά. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δεξιὰ μὲν τὰ κατὰ τὸν θερινὸν τροπικόν, ἀριστερὰ δὲ τὰ κατὰ τὸν χειμερινόν.

[¶10] 11. ANAXIMENES declares that the circumference of heaven is the limit of the earth’s revolution. Empedocles, that the heaven is a solid substance, and hath the form and hardness of crystal, it being composed of the air compacted by fire, and that in both hemispheres it invests the elements of air and fire. Aristotle, that it is formed by the fifth body, and by the mixture of extreme heat and cold THALES, Pythagoras, and the followers of Pythagoras do distribute the universal globe of heaven into five circles, which they denominate zones; one of which is called the arctic circle, which is always conspicuous to us, another is the summer tropic, another is the equinoctial, another is the winter tropic, another is the antarctic circle, which is always invisible.

> Greek: 11. Ἀναξιμένης τὴν περιφορὰν τὴν ἐξωτάτω γῆς εἶναι. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς στερέμνιον εἶναι τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐξ ἀέρος συμπαγέντος ὑπὸ πυρὸς κρυσταλλοειδῶς, τὸ πυρῶδες καὶ τὸ ἀερῶδες ἐν ἑκατέρῳ τῶν ἡμισφαιρίων περιέχοντα. Ἀριστοτέλης ἐκ πέμπτου σώματος, πυρὸς, ἢ ἐκ θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ μίγματος.

[¶11] 12. The circle called the zodiac is placed under the three that are in the midst, and lies obliquely, gently touching them all. Likewise, they are all cut in right angles by the meridian, which runs from pole to pole. It is supposed that Pythagoras made the first discovery of the obliquity of the zodiac, but one Oenopides of Chios challenges to himself the invention of it.

> Greek: 12. Θαλῆς Πυθαγόρας οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ μεμερίσθαι τὴν τοῦ παντὸς οὐρανοῦ σφαῖραν εἰς κύκλους πέντε, οὕστινας προσαγορεύουσι ζώνας· καλεῖται δʼ αὐτῶν ὁ μὲν ἀρκτικός τε καὶ ἀειφανής, ὁ δὲ θερινὸς τροπικός, ὁ δʼ ἰσημερινός, ὁ δὲ χειμερινὸς τροπικός, ὁ δʼ ἀνταρκτικός τε καὶ ἀφανής· λοξὸς δὲ τοῖς τρισὶ μέσοις ὁ καλούμενος ζῳδιακὸς ὑποβέβληται, παρεπιψαύων τῶν μέσων τριῶν· πάντας αὐτοὺς ὁ μεσημβρινὸς πρὸς ὀρθὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ἄρκτων ἐπὶ τὸ ἀντίξουν τέμνει. Πυθαγόρας πρῶτος ἐπινενοηκέναι λέγεται τὴν λόξωσιν τοῦ ζῳδιακοῦ κύκλου, ἥντινα Οἰνοπίδης ὁ Χῖος ὡς ἰδίαν ἐπίνοιαν σφετερίζεται.

[¶12] 13. THALES believes that they are globes of earth set on fire. Empedocles, that they are fiery bodies arising from that fire which the ether embraced within itself, and did shatter in pieces when the elements were first separated one from another. Anaxagoras, that the circumambient ether is of a fiery substance, which, by a vehement force in its whirling about, did tear stones from the earth, and by its own power set them on fire, and establish them as stars in the heavens. Diogenes thinks they resemble pumice stones, and that they are the breathings of the world; again he supposeth that there are some invisible stones, which sometimes fall from heaven upon the earth, and are there quenched; as it happened at Aegos-potami, where a stony star resembling fire did fall. Empedocles, that the fixed stars are fastened to the crystal, but the planets are loosened. Plato, that the stars for the most part are of a fiery nature, but they are made partakers of another element, with which they are mixed after the resemblance of glue. Xenophanes, that they are composed of inflamed clouds, which in the daytime are quenched, and in the night are kindled again. The like we see in coals; for the rising and setting of the stars is nothing else but the quenching and kindling of them. Heraclides and the Pythagoreans, that every star is a world in an infinite ether, and itself encompasseth air, earth, and ether; this opinion is current among the followers of Orpheus, for they suppose that each of the stars does make a world. Epicurus condemns none of these opinions, for he embraces any thing that is possible.

> Greek: 13. Θαλῆς γεώδη μὲν ἔμπυρα δὲ τὰ ἄστρα. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς πύρινα ἐκ τοῦ πυρώδους, ὅπερ ὁ ἀὴρ ἐν ἑαυτῷ περιέχων ἐξανέθλιψε κατὰ τὴν πρώτην διάκρισιν. Ἀναξαγόρας τὸν περικείμενον αἰθέρα πύρινον μὲν εἶναι κατὰ τὴν οὐσίαν, τῇ δʼ εὐτονίᾳ τῆς περιδινήσεως ἀναρπάσαντα πέτρους ἐκ τῆς γῆς καὶ καταφλέξαντα τούτους ἠστερικέναι. Διογένης κισηρώδη τὰ ἄστρα, διαπνοὰς δʼ αὐτὰ νομίζει τοῦ κόσμου· πάλιν δʼ ὁ αὐτὸς ἀφανεῖς μὲν λίθους, πίπτοντας δὲ πολλάκις ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν σβέννυσθαι, καθάπερ τὸν ἐν Αἰγὸς ποταμοῖς πυροειδῶς κατενεχθέντα ἀστέρα πέτρινον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τοὺς μὲν ἀπλανεῖς ἀστέρας συνδεδέσθαι τῷ κρυστάλλῳ, τοὺς δὲ πλανήτας ἀνεῖσθαι. Πλάτων ἐκ μὲν τοῦ πλείστου μέρους πυρίνους, μετέχοντας δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων στοιχείων κόλλης δίκην. Ξενοφάνης ἐκ νεφῶν μὲν πεπυρωμένων, σβεννυμένους δὲ καθʼ ἑκάστην ἡμέραν ἀναζωπυρεῖν νύκτωρ, καθάπερ τοὺς ἄνθρακας· τὰς γὰρ ἀνατολὰς καὶ τὰς δύσεις ἐξάψεις εἶναι καὶ σβέσεις. Ἡρακλείδης καὶ οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι ἕκαστον τῶν ἀστέρων κόσμον ὑπάρχειν, γῆν περιέχοντα ἀέρα τε καὶ αἰθέρα ἐν τῷ ἀπείρῳ αἰθέρι ταῦτα δὲ τὰ δόγματα ἐν τοῖς Ὀρφικοῖς φέρεται κοσμοποιοῦσι γὰρ ἕκαστον τῶν ἀστέρων. Ἐπίκουρος οὐδὲν ἀπογινώσκει τούτων, ἐχόμενος τοῦ ἐνδεχομένου.

[¶13] 14. THE Stoics say that the stars are of a circular form, like the sun, the moon, and the world. Cleanthes, that they are of a conical figure. Anaximenes, that they are fastened as nails in the crystalline firmament; some others, that they are fiery plates of gold, resembling pictures.

> Greek: 14. οἱ Στωικοὶ σφαιρικοὺς τοὺς ἀστέρας, καθάπερ τὸν κόσμον καὶ ἣλιον καὶ σελήνην. Κλεάνθης κωνοειδεῖς. Ἀναξιμένης ἥλων δίκην καταπεπηγέναι τῷ κρυσταλλοειδεῖ. ἔνιοι δὲ πέταλα εἶναι πύρινα, ὥσπερ ζῳγραφήματα.

[¶14] 15. XENOCRATES says that the stars are moved in one and the same superficies. The other Stoics say that they are moved in various superficies, some being superior, others inferior. Democritus, that the fixed stars are in the highest place; after those the planets; after which the sun, Venus, and the moon, in their order. Plato, that the first after the fixed stars that makes its appearance is Phaenon, the star of Saturn; the second Phaëton, the star of Jupiter; the third the fiery, which is the star of Mars; the fourth the morning star, which is the star of Venus; the fifth the shining star, and that is the star of Mercury; in the sixth place is the sun, in the seventh the moon. Plato and some of the mathematicians conspire in the same opinion; others place the sun as the centre of the planets. Anaximander, Metrodorus of Chios, and Crates assign to the sun the superior place, after him they place the moon, after them the fixed stars and planets.

> Greek: 15. Ξενοκράτης κατὰ μιᾶς ἐπιφανείας οἴεται κινεῖσθαι τοὺς ἀστέρας. οἱ δʼ ἄλλοι Στωικοὶ πρὸ τῶν ἑτέρων τοὺς ἑτέρους ἐν ὕψει καὶ βάθει. Δημόκριτος τὰ μὲν ἀπλανῆ πρῶτον, μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα τοὺς πλανήτας, ἐφʼ οἷς ἣλιον φωσφόρον σελήνην. Πλάτων μετὰ τὴν τῶν ἀπλανῶν θέσιν πρῶτον φαίνοντα λεγόμενον τὸν τοῦ Κρόνου δεύτερον φαέθοντα τὸν τοῦ Διός, τρίτον πυρόεντα τὸν τοῦ Ἄρεος, τέταρτον ἑωσφόρον τὸν τῆς Ἀφροδίτης, πέμπτον στίλβοντα τὸν τοῦ Ἑρμοῦ, ἕκτον ἣλιον, ἕβδομον σελήνην. τῶν μαθηματικῶν τινὲς μὲν ὡς Πλάτων, τινὲς δὲ μέσον πάντων τὸν ἣλιον. Ἀναξίμανδρος καὶ Μητρόδωρος ὁ Χῖος καὶ Κράτης ἀνωτάτω μὲν πάντων τὸν ἥλιον τετάχθαι, μετʼ αὐτὸν δὲ τὴν σελήνην, ὑπὸ δʼ αὐτοὺς τὰ ἀπλανῆ τῶν ἄστρων καὶ τοὺς πλανήτας.

[¶15] 16. ANAXAGORAS, Democritus, and Cleanthes say that all the stars have their motion from east to west. Alcmaeon and the mathematicians, that the planets have a contrary motion to the fixed stars, and in opposition to them are carried from the west to the east. Anaximander, that they are moved by those circles and spheres on which they are placed. Anaximenes, that they are turned under and about the earth. Plato and the mathematicians, that the sun, Venus, and Mercury have equal measures in their motions.

> Greek: 16. Ἀναξαγόρας Δημόκριτος Κλεάνθης ἀπʼ ἀνατολῶν ἐπὶ δυσμὰς φέρεσθαι πάντας τοὺς ἀστέρας. Ἀλκμαίων καὶ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ τοὺς πλανήτας τοῖς ἀπλανέσιν ἐναντίους ἀπὸ γὰρ δυσμῶν ἐπʼ ἀνατολὰς ἀντιφέρεσθαι. Ἀναξίμανδρος ὑπὸ τῶν κύκλων καὶ τῶν σφαιρῶν, ἐφʼ ὧν ἕκαστος βέβηκε, φέρεσθαι. Ἀναξιμένης οὐχ ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν περὶ αὐτὴν δὲ στρέφεσθαι τοὺς ἀστέρας. Πλάτων καὶ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ ἰσοδρόμους εἶναι τὸν ἥλιον τὸν ἑωσφόρον τὸν στίλβοντα.

[¶16] 17. METRODORUS says that all the fixed stars derive their light from the sun. Heraclitus and the Stoics, that earthly exhalations are those by which the stars are nourished. Aristotle, that the heavenly bodies require no nutriment, for they being eternal cannot be obnoxious to corruption. Plato and the Stoics, that the whole world and the stars are fed by the same things.

> Greek: 17. Μητρόδωρος ἅπαντας τοὺς ἀπλανεῖς ἀστέρας ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου προσλάμπεσθαι. Ἡράκλειτος καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ τρέφεσθαι τοὺς ἀστέρας ἐκ τῆς ἐπιγείου ἀναθυμιάσεως. Ἀριστοτέλης μὴ δεῖσθαι τὰ οὐράνια τροφῆς· οὐ γὰρ φθαρτὰ ἀλλʼ ἀίδια. Πλάτων καὶ οἱ Στωικοί, ὡς ὅλον τὸν κόσμον, καὶ τὰ ἄστρα ἐξ αὑτῶν τρέφεσθαι.

[¶17] 18. XENOPHANES says that those which appear as stars in the tops of ships are little clouds shining by their peculiar motion. Metrodorus, that the eyes of frighted and astonished people emit those lights which are called the Twins.

> Greek: 18. Ξενοφάνης τοὺς ἐπὶ τῶν πλοίων φαινομένους οἷον ἀστέρας νεφέλια εἶναι κατὰ τὴν ποιὰν κίνησιν παραλάμποντα. Μητρόδωρος τῶν ὁρώντων ὀφθαλμῶν μετὰ δέους καὶ καταπλήξεως εἶναι στιλβηδόνας.

[¶18] 19. PLATO says that the summer and winter indications proceed from the rising and setting of the stars, that is, from the rising and setting of the sun, the moon, and the fixed stars. Anaximenes, that the others in this are not at all concerned, but that it is wholly performed by the sun. Eudoxus and Aratus assign it in common to all the stars, for thus Aratus sings:
Thund’ring Jove stars in heaven hath fixed,
And them in such beauteous order mixed,
Which yearly future things predict.

> Greek: 19. Πλάτων τὰς ἐπισημασίας τάς τε θερινὰς καὶ τὰς χειμερινὰς κατὰ τὰς τῶν ἀστέρων ἐπιτολάς τε καὶ δυσμὰς γίνεσθαι, ἡλίου τε καὶ σελήνης καὶ τῶν ἄλλων πλανητῶν καὶ ἀπλανῶν. Ἀναξιμένης δὲ διὰ μὲν ταῦτα μηδὲν τούτων, διὰ δὲ τὸν ἥλιον μόνον. Εὔδοξος Ἄρατος κοινῶς διὰ πάντας τοὺς ἀστέρας, ἐν οἷς φησιν
αὐτὸς γὰρ τάδε σήματʼ ἐν οὐρανῷ ἐστήριξεν,
ἄστρα διακρίνας· ἐσκέψατο δʼ εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν
ἀστέρας, οἵ κε μάλιστα τετυγμένα σημαίνοιεν.

[¶19] 20. ANAXIMANDER says, that the sun is a circle eight and twenty times bigger than the earth, and has a circumference which very much resembles that of a chariot-wheel, which is hollow and full of fire; the fire of which appears to us through its mouth, as by a hole in a pipe; and this is the sun. Xenophanes, that the sun is constituted of small bodies of fire compact together and raised from a moist exhalation, which collected together make the body of the sun; or that it is a cloud enfired. The Stoics, that it is an intelligent flame proceeding from the sea. Plato, that it is composed of abundance of fire. Anaxagoras, Democritus, and Metrodorus, that it is an enfired stone, or a burning mass. Aristotle, that it is a sphere formed out of the fifth body. Philolaus the Pythagorean, that the sun shines as crystal, which receives its splendor from the fire of the world and so reflecteth its light upon us; so that first, the body of fire which is celestial belongs to the sun; and secondly, the fiery reflection that proceeds from it, in the form of a mirror; and lastly, the light which is spread upon us by way of reflection from that mirror; and this last we call the sun, which is (as it were) an image of an image. Empedocles, that there are two suns; the one the prototype, which is a fire placed in the other hemisphere, which it totally fills, and is always ordered in a direct opposition to the reflection of its own light; and the sun which is visible to us, formed by the reflection of that splendor in the other hemisphere (which is filled with air mixed with heat), the light reflected from the circular sun in the opposite hemisphere falling upon the crystalline sun; and this reflection is carried round with the motion of the fiery sun. To give briefly the full sense, the sun is nothing else but the light and brightness of that fire which encompasseth the earth. Epicurus, that it is an earthy bulk well compacted, with hollow passages like a pumice-stone or a sponge, which is kindled by fire.

> Greek: 20. Ἀναξίμανδρος κύκλον εἶναι ὀκτωκαιεικοσαπλασίονα τῆς γῆς, ἁρματείῳ τροχῷ παραπλήσιον, τὴν ἁψῖδα ἔχοντα κοίλην, πλήρη πυρός, κατά τι μέρος ἐκφαίνουσαν διὰ στομίου τὸ πῦρ ὥσπερ διὰ πρηστῆρος αὐλοῦ· καὶ τοῦτʼ εἶναι τὸν ἥλιον. Ξενοφάνης ἐκ πυριδίων τῶν συναθροιζομένων μὲν ἐκ τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἀναθυμιάσεως συναθροιζόντων δὲ τὸν ἥλιον· ἢ νέφος πεπυρωμένον. οἱ Στωικοὶ ἄναμμα νοερὸν ἐκ θαλάττης Πλάτων ἐκ πλείστου πυρός. Ἀναξαγόρας Δημόκριτος Μητρόδωρος μύδρον ἢ πέτρον διάπυρον. Ἀριστοτέλης σφαῖραν ἐκ τοῦ πέμπτου σώματος Φιλόλαος ὁ Πυθαγόρειος ὑαλοειδῆ, δεχόμενον μὲν τοῦ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ πυρὸς τὴν ἀνταύγειαν, διηθοῦντα δὲ πρὸς ἡμᾶς τὸ φῶς, ὥστε προσεοικέναι ἡλίῳ τὸ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ πυρῶδες τό τε δὴ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐσοπτροειδές· καὶ τρίτον τὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐσόπτρου κατʼ ἀνάκλασιν διασπειρομένην πρὸς ἡμᾶς αὐγήν· καὶ γὰρ ταύτην προσονομάζομεν ἥλιον, οἱονεὶ εἴδωλον εἰδώλου. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δύο ἡλίους, τὸν μὲν ἀρχέτυπον, πῦρ ὂν ἐν τῷ ἑτέρῳ ἡμισφαιρίῳ τοῦ κόσμου πεπληρωκὸς τὸ ἡμισφαίριον, ἀεὶ καταντικρὺ τῇ ἀνταυγείᾳ ἑαυτοῦ τεταγμένον τὸν δὲ φαινόμενον ἀνταύγειαν ἐν τῷ ἑτέρῳ ἡμισφαιρίῳ τῷ τοῦ ἀέρος τοῦ θερμομιγοῦς πεπληρωμένῳ, ἀπὸ κυκλοτεροῦς τῆς αὐγῆς κατʼ ἀνάκλασιν γιγνομένην εἰς τὸν ἥλιον τὸν κρυσταλλοειδῆ, συμπεριελκομένην δὲ τῇ κινήσει τοῦ πυρίνου· ὡς δὲ βραχέως εἰρῆσθαι συντεμόντι, ἀνταύγειαν εἶναι τοῦ περὶ τὴν γῆν πυρὸς τὸν ἣλιον. Ἐπίκουρος γήινον πύκνωμα κισηροειδῶς καὶ σπογγοειδῶς ταῖς κατατρήσεσιν ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς ἀνημμένον.

[¶20] 21. ANAXIMANDER says, that the sun itself in greatness is equal to the earth, but that the circle from whence it receives its respiration and in which it is moved is seven and twenty times larger than the earth. Anaxagoras, that it is far greater than Peloponnesus. Heraclitus, that it is no broader than a man’s foot. Epicurus, that he equally embraceth all the foresaid opinions,—that the sun may be of magnitude as it appears, or it may be somewhat greater or somewhat less.

> Greek: 21. Ἀναξίμανδρος τὸν μὲν ἣλιον ἴσον τῇ γῇ εἶναι, τὸν δὲ κύκλον, ἀφʼ οὗ τὴν ἐκπνοὴν ἔχει καὶ ὑφʼ οὗ φέρεται, ἑπτακαιεικοσαπλασίονα τῆς γῆς. Ἀναξαγόρας πολλαπλασίονα Πελοποννήσου. Ἡράκλειτος εὖρος ποδὸς ἀνθρωπείου. Ἐπίκουρος τηλικοῦτον ἡλίκος φαίνεται, ἢ μικρῷ μείζω ἢ ἐλάττω.

[¶21] 22. ANAXIMENES affirms that in its dilatation it resembles a leaf. Heraclitus, that it hath the shape of a boat, and is somewhat crooked. The Stoics, that it is spherical, and it is of the same figure with the world and the stars. Epicurus, that the recited dogmas may be defended.

> Greek: 22. Ἀναξιμένης πλατὺν ὡς πέταλον τὸν ἣλιον. Ἡράκλειτος σκαφοειδῆ, ὑπόκυρτον. οἱ Στωικοὶ σφαιροειδῆ, ὡς τὸν κόσμον καὶ τὰ ἄστρα. Ἐπίκουρος ἐνδέχεσθαι τὰ προειρημένα πάντα.

[¶22] 23. ANAXIMENES thinks that the stars are forced by a condensed and resisting air. Anaxagoras, by the repelling force of the northern air, which is violently pushed on by the sun, and thus rendered more condensed and powerful. Empedocles, that the sun is hindered from a continual direct course by its spherical vehicle and by the two circular tropics. Diogenes, that the sun, when it comes to its utmost declination, is extinguished, a rigorous cold damping the heat. The Stoics, that the sun maintains its course only through that space in which its aliment is seated, let it be the ocean or the earth; by the exhalations proceeding from these it is nourished. Plato, Pythagoras, and Aristotle, that the sun receives a transverse motion from the obliquity of the zodiac, which is guarded by the tropics; all these the globe clearly manifests.

> Greek: 23. Ἀναξιμένης ὑπὸ πεπυκνωμένου ἀέρος καὶ ἀντιτύπου ἐξωθεῖσθαι τὰ ἄστρα. Ἀναξαγόρας ἀνταπώσει τοῦ πρὸς ταῖς ἄρκτοις ἀέρος, ὃν αὐτὸς συνωθῶν ἐκ τῆς πυκνώσεως ἰσχυροποιεῖ. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ὑπὸ τῆς περιεχούσης αὐτὸν σφαίρας κωλυόμενον ἄχρι παντὸς εὐθυπορεῖν καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν τροπικῶν κύκλων. Διογένης ὑπὸ τοῦ ἀντιπίπτοντος τῇ θερμότητι ψύχους σβέννυσθαι τὸν ἥλιον. οἱ Στωικοὶ κατὰ τὸ διάστημα τῆς ὑποκειμένης τροφῆς διέρχεσθαι τὸν ἣλιον· ὠκεανὸς δʼ ἐστὶν ἢ γῆ, ἧς τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν ἐπινέμεται. Πλάτων Πυθαγόρας Ἀριστοτέλης παρὰ τὴν λόξωσιν τοῦ ζῳδιακοῦ κύκλου, διʼ οὗ φέρεται λοξοπορῶν ὁ ἥλιος, καὶ κατὰ δορυφορίαν τῶν τροπικῶν κύκλων ταῦτα δὲ πάντα καὶ ἡ σφαῖρα δείκνυσιν.

[¶23] 24. THALES was the first who affirmed that the eclipse of the sun was caused by the moon’s running in a perpendicular line between it and the earth; for the moon in its own nature is terrestrial. And by mirrors it is made perspicuous that, when the sun is eclipsed, the moon is in a direct line below it. Anaximander, that the sun is eclipsed when the fiery mouth of it is stopped and hindered from expiration. Heraclitus, that it is after the manner of the turning of a boat, when the concave appears uppermost to our sight, and the convex nethermost. Xenophanes, that the sun is eclipsed when it is extinguished; and that a new sun is created to rise in the east. He gives a farther account of an eclipse-of the sun which remained for a whole month, and again of a total eclipse which changed the day into night. Some say that the cause of an eclipse is the invisible concourse of condensed clouds which cover the orb of the sun. Aristarchus placeth the sun amongst the fixed stars, and believeth that the earth [the moon?] is moved about the sun, and that by its inclination and vergency it intercepts its light and shadows its orb. Xenophanes, that there are many suns and many moons, according as the earth is distinguished by climates, circles, and zones. At some certain times the orb of the sun, falling upon some part of the world which is uninhabited, wanders in a vacuum and becomes eclipsed. The same person affirms that the sun, proceeding in its motion in the infinite space, appears to us to move orbicularly, receiving that representation from its infinite distance from us.

> Greek: 24. Θαλῆς πρῶτος ἔφη ἐκλείπειν τὸν ἥλιον, τῆς σελήνης αὐτὸν ὑποτρεχούσης κατὰ κάθετον, οὔσης φύσει γεώδους· βλέπεσθαι δὲ τοῦτο κατοπτρικῶς ὑποτιθεμένῳ τῷ δίσκῳ. Ἀναξίμανδρος τοῦ στομίου τῆς τοῦ πυρὸς διεκπνοῆς ἀποκλειομένου. Ἡράκλειτος κατὰ τὴν τοῦ σκαφοειδοῦς στροφήν, ὥστε τὸ μὲν κοῖλον ἄνω γίνεσθαι τὸ δὲ κυρτὸν κάτω πρὸς τὴν ἡμετέραν ὄψιν. Ξενοφάνης κατὰ σβέσιν· ἕτερον δὲ πάλιν πρὸς ταῖς ἀνατολαῖς γίνεσθαι παριστόρηκε δὲ καὶ ἔκλειψιν ἡλίου ἐφʼ ὅλον μῆνα καὶ πάλιν ἔκλειψιν ἐντελῆ, ὥστε τὴν ἡμέραν νύκτα φανῆναι. ἔνιοι πύκνωμα τῶν ἀοράτως ἐπερχομένων τῷ δίσκῳ νεφῶν. Ἀρίσταρχος τὸν ἥλιον ἵστησι μετὰ τῶν ἀπλανῶν, τὴν δὲ γῆν κινεῖ περὶ τὸν ἡλιακὸν κύκλον καὶ κατὰ τὰς ταύτης ἐγκλίσεις σκιάζεσθαι τὸν δίσκον. Ξενοφάνης πολλοὺς εἶναι ἡλίους καὶ σελήνας κατὰ τὰ κλίματα τῆς γῆς καὶ ἀποτομὰς καὶ ζώνας· κατά τινα δὲ καιρὸν ἐμπίπτειν τὸν δίσκον εἴς τινα ἀποτομὴν τῆς γῆς οὐκ οἰκουμένην ὑφʼ ἡμῶν, καὶ οὕτως ὥσπερ κενεμβατοῦντα ἔκλειψιν ὑπομένειν. ὁ δʼ αὐτὸς τὸν ἥλιον εἰς ἄπειρον μὲν προϊέναι, δοκεῖν δὲ κυκλεῖσθαι διὰ τὴν ἀπόστασιν.

[¶24] 25. ANAXIMANDER affirms that the circle of the moon is nineteen times bigger than the earth, and resembles the sun, its orb being full of fire; and it suffers an eclipse when the wheel turneth,—which he describes by the divers turnings of a chariot-wheel, in the midst of it there being a hollow replenished with fire, which hath but one way of expiration. Xenophanes, that it is a condensed cloud. The Stoics, that it is mixed of fire and air. Plato, that it is a body of the greatest part earthy. Anaxagoras and Democritus, that it is a solid, condensed, and fiery body, in which there are champaign countries, mountains, and valleys. Heraclitus, that it is an earth covered with a cloud. Pythagoras, that the body of the moon was of a nature like a mirror.

> Greek: 25. Ἀναξίμανδρος κύκλον εἶναι ἐννεακαιδεκαπλασίονα τῆς γῆς, ὥσπερ τὸν τοῦ ἡλίου πλήρη πυρός ἐκλείπειν δὲ κατὰ τὰς ἐπιστροφὰς τοῦ τροχοῦ· ὅμοιον γὰρ εἶναι ἁρματείῳ τροχῷ κοίλην ἔχοντι τὴν ἁψῖδα καὶ πλήρη πυρός, ἔχοντι μίαν ἐκπνοήν. Ξενοφάνης νέφος εἶναι πεπιλημένον. οἱ Στωικοὶ μικτὴν ἐκ πυρὸς καὶ ἀέρος Πλάτων ἐκ πλείονος τοῦ πυρώδους. Ἀναξαγόρας Δημόκριτος στερέωμα διάπυρον, ἔχον ἐν ἑαυτῷ πεδία καὶ ὄρη καὶ φάραγγας. Ἡράκλειτος γῆν ὁμίχλῃ περιειλημμένην. Πυθαγόρας κατοπτροειδὲς σῶμα.

[¶25] 26. THE Stoics declare, that in magnitude it exceeds the earth, as the sun itself doth. Parmenides, that it is equal to the sun, from whom it receives its light.

> Greek: 26. οἱ Στωικοὶ μείζονα τῆς γῆς ἀποφαίνονται ὡς καὶ τὸν ἥλιον. Παρμενίδης ἴσην τῷ ἡλίῳ, καὶ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ φωτίζεσθαι.

[¶26] 27. THE Stoics believe that it is of the same figure with the sun, spherical. Empedocles, that the figure of it resembles a quoit. Heraclitus, a boat. Others, a cylinder.

> Greek: 27. οἱ Στωικοὶ σφαιροειδῆ εἶναι ὡς τὸν ἣλιον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δισκοειδῆ. Ἡράκλειτος σκαφοειδῆ. ἄλλοι κυλινδροειδῆ.

[¶27] 28. ANAXIMANDER thinks that she gives light to herself, but it is very slender and faint. Antiphon, that the moon shines by its own proper light; but when it absconds itself; the solar beams darting on it obscure it. Thus it naturally happens, that a more vehement light puts out a weaker; the same is seen in other stars. Thales and his followers, that the moon borrows all her light of the sun. Heraclitus, that the sun and moon are after the same manner affected; in their configurations both are shaped like boats, and are made conspicuous to us, receiving their light from moist exhalations. The sun appears to us more refulgent, by reason it is moved in a clearer and purer air; the moon appears more duskish, it being carried in an air more troubled and gross.

> Greek: 28. Ἀναξίμανδρος ἴδιον αὐτὴν ἔχειν φῶς, ἀραιότερον δέ πως. Ἀντιφῶν ἰδίῳ φέγγει λάμπειν τὴν σελήνην, τὸ δʼ ἀποκρυπτόμενον περὶ αὐτὴν ὑπὸ τῆς προσβολῆς τοῦ ἡλίου ἀμαυροῦσθαι, πεφυκότος τοῦ ἰσχυροτέρου πυρὸς τὸ ἀσθενέστερον ἀμαυροῦν· ὁ δὴ συμβαίνειν καὶ περὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἄστρα. Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου φωτίζεσθαι τὴν σελήνην. Ἡράκλειτος τὸ αὐτὸ πεπονθέναι τὸν ἥλιον καὶ τὴν σελήνην σκαφοειδεῖς γὰρ ὄντας τοῖς σχήμασι τοὺς ἀστέρας δεχομένους τὰς ἀπὸ τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἀναθυμιάσεως αὐγὰς φωτίζεσθαι πρὸς τὴν φαντασίαν, λαμπρότερον μὲν τὸν ἥλιον, ἐν καθαρωτέρῳ γὰρ ἀέρι φέρεσθαι, τὴν δὲ σελήνην ἐν θολωτέρῳ, διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἀμαυροτέραν φαίνεσθαι.

[¶28] 29. ANAXIMENES believes that the mouth of the hollow wheel, about which the moon is turned, being stopped is the cause of, an eclipse. Berosus, that it proceeds from the turning of the dark side of the lunar orb towards us. Heraclitus, that it is performed just after the manner of a boat turned upside downwards. Some of the Pythagoreans say, that the splendor arises from the earth, its obstruction from the Antichthon (or counter-earth). Some of the later philosophers, that there is such a distribution of the lunar flame, that it gradually and in a just order burns until it be full moon; in like manner, that this fire decays by degrees, until its conjunction with the sun totally extinguisheth it. Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and all the mathematicians agree in this, that the obscurity with which the moon is every month affected ariseth from a conjunction with the sun, by whose more resplendent beams she is darkened; and the moon is then eclipsed when she falls upon the shadow of the earth, the earth interposing between the sun and moon, or (to speak more properly) the earth intercepting the light of the moon.

> Greek: 29. Ἀναξίμανδρος τοῦ στομίου τοῦ περὶ τὸν τροχὸν ἐπιφραττομένου. Βήρωσος κατὰ τὴν πρὸς ἡμᾶς ἐπιστροφὴν τοῦ ἀπυρώτου μέρους Ἡράκλειτος κατὰ τὴν τοῦ σκαφοειδοῦς συστροφήν. τῶν Πυθαγορείων τινὲς ἀνταυγείᾳ καὶ ἐπιφράξει τὸ μὲν τῆς γῆς τὸ δὲ τῆς ἀντίχθονος· οἱ δὲ νεώτεροι κατʼ ἐπινέμησιν φλογὸς κατὰ μικρὸν ἐξαπτομένης τεταγμένως, ἕως ἂν τὴν τελείαν πανσέληνον ἀποδῷ, καὶ πάλιν ἀναλόγως μειουμένης μέχρι τῆς συνόδου, καθʼ ἣν τελείως σβέννυται. Πλάτων Ἀριστοτέλης οἱ Στωικοὶ καὶ οἱ μαθηματικοὶ συμφώνως τὰς μὲν μηνιαίας ἀποκρύψεις συνοδεύουσαν αὐτὴν τῷ ἡλίῳ καὶ περιλαμπομένην ποιεῖσθαι, τὰς δʼ ἐκλείψεις εἰς τὸ σκίασμα τῆς γῆς ἐμπίπτουσαν, μεταξὺ μὲν ἀμφοτέρων τῶν ἀστέρων γινομένης, μᾶλλον δὲ τῆς σελήνης ἀντιφραττομένης οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι γεώδη φαίνεσθαι τὴν σελήνην, διὰ τὸ περιοικεῖσθαι αὐτὴν καθάπερ τὴν παρʼ ἡμῖν γῆν μείζοσι ζῴοις καὶ φυτοῖς καλλίοσιν·

[¶29] 30. THE Pythagoreans say, that the moon appears to us terraneous, by reason it is inhabited as our earth is, and in it there are animals of a larger size and plants of a rarer beauty than our globe affords; that the animals in their virtue and energy are fifteen degrees superior to ours; that they emit nothing excrementitious; and that the days are fifteen times longer. Anaxagoras, that the reason of the inequality ariseth from the commixture of things earthy and cold; and that fiery and caliginous matter is jumbled together, whereby the moon is said to be a star of a counterfeit aspect. The Stoics, that by reason of the diversity of her substance the composition of her body is subject to corruption.

> Greek: 30. εἶναι γὰρ πεντεκαιδεκαπλάσια τὰ ἐπʼ αὐτῆς ζῷα τῇ δυνάμει μηδὲν περιττωματικὸν ἀποκρίνοντα, καὶ τὴν ἡμέραν τοσαύτην τῷ μήκει. Ἀναξαγόρας ἀνωμαλότητα τοῦ συγκρίματος διὰ τὸ ψυχρομιγὲς ἅμα καὶ γεῶδες· παραμεμῖχθαι γὰρ τῷ πυροειδεῖ τὸ ζοφῶδες ὅθεν ψευδοφανῆ λέγεσθαι τὸν ἀστέρα. οἱ Στωικοὶ διὰ τὸ ἑτεροειδὲς τῆς οὐσίας μὴ εἶναι αὐτῆς ἀκήρατον τὸ σύγκριμα.

[¶30] 31. EMPEDOCLES affirms, that the distance of the moon from the sun is double her remoteness from the earth. The mathematicians, that her distance from the sun is eighteen times her distance from the earth. Eratosthenes, that the sun is remote from the earth seven hundred and eighty thousand furlongs.

> Greek: 31. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς διπλάσιον ἀπέχειν τὴν σελήνην ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου ἤπερ ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς, οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν μαθηματικῶν ὀκτωκαιδεκαπλάσιον. Ἐρατοσθένης τὸν ἣλιον ἀπέχειν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς σταδίων μυριάδας τετρακοσίας καὶ ὀκτακισμυρίας, τὴν δὲ σελήνην ἀπέχειν τῆς γῆς μυριάδας ἑβδομήκοντα ὀκτώ σταδίων.

[¶31] 32. THE year of Saturn is completed when he has had his circulation in the space of thirty solar years; of Jupiter in twelve; of Mars in two, of the sun in twelve months; in so many Mercury and Venus, the spaces of their circulation being equal; of the moon in thirty days, in which time her course from her prime to her conjunction is finished. As to the great year, some make it to consist of eight years solar, some of nineteen, others of fifty-nine. Heraclitus, of eighteen thousand. Diogenes, of three hundred and sixty-five such years as Heraclitus assigns. Others there are who lengthen it to seven thousand seven hundred and seventy-seven years. IN my two precedent treatises having in due order taken a compendious view and given an account of the celestial bodies, and of the moon which divides between them and the terrestrial, I must now convert my pen to discourse in this third book of Meteors, which are beings above the earth and below the moon, and are extended to the site and position of the earth, which is supposed to be the centre of the sphere of this world; and from thence will I take my beginning.

> Greek: 32. ἐνιαυτός ἐστι Κρόνου μὲν, ἐνιαυτῶν περίοδος λʼ, Διὸς δὲ ιβʼ. Ἄρεος δυεῖν· ἡλίου ιβʼ μῆνες· οἱ δʼ αὐτοὶ Ἑρμοῦ καὶ Ἀφροδίτης, ἰσόδρομοι γάρ σελήνης ἡμέραι λʼ· οὗτος γὰρ ὁ τέλειος μὴν ἀπὸ φάσεως εἰς σύνοδον. τὸν δὲ μέγαν ἐνιαυτὸν οἱ μὲν ἐν τῇ ὀκταετηρίδι τίθενται οἱ δʼ ἐν τῇ ἐννεακαιδεκαετηρίδι οἱ δʼ ἐν τοῖς ἑξήκοντα ἑνὸς δέουσιν· Ἡράκλειτος ἐκ μυρίων ὀκτακισχιλίων ἡλιακῶν ἡλιακῶν Διογένης ἐκ πέντε καὶ ἑξήκοντα καὶ τριακοσίων ἐνιαυτῶν τοσούτων ὅσων ὁ κατὰ Ἡράκλειτον ἐνιαυτός. ἄλλοι δὲ διʼ ἑπτακισχιλίων ψοζʼ. Περιωδευκὼς ἐν τοῖς προτέροις ἐν ἐπιτομῇ τὸν περὶ τῶν οὐρανίων λόγον, σελήνη δʼ αὐτῶν τὸ μεθόριον, τρέψομαι ἐν τῷ τρίτῳ πρὸς τὰ μετάρσια ταῦτα δʼ ἐστὶ τὰ ἀπὸ τοῦ κύκλου τῆς σελήνης καθήκοντα μέχρι πρὸς τὴν θέσιν τῆς γῆς, ἥντινα κέντρου τάξιν ἐπέχειν τῇ περιοχῇ τῆς σφαίρας νενομίκασιν. ἄρξομαι δʼ ἐντεῦθεν.

## 4. Book III

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/4/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/4/#p-N

[¶0] 1. IT is a cloudy circle, which continually appears in the air, and by reason of the whiteness of its colors is called the galaxy, or the milky way. Some of the Pythagoreans say that, when Phaëton set the world on fire, a star falling from its own place in its circular passage through the region caused an inflammation. Others say that originally it was the first course of the sun; others, that it is an image as in a looking-glass, occasioned by the sun’s reflecting its beams towards the heavens, and this appears in the clouds and in the rainbow. Metrodorus, that it is merely the solar course, or the motion of the sun in its own circle. Parmenides, that the mixture of a thick and thin substance gives it a color which resembles milk. Anaxagoras, that the sun moving under the earth and not being able to enlighten every place, the shadow of the earth, being cast upon the part of the heavens, makes the galaxy. Democritus, that it is the splendor which ariseth from the coalition of many small bodies, which, being firmly united amongst themselves, do mutually enlighten one another. Aristotle, that it is the inflammation of dry, copious, and coherent exhalations, by which the fiery train, whose seat is beneath the ether and the planets, is produced. Posidonius, that it is a combination of fire, of rarer substance than the stars, but denser than light.

> Greek: 1. κύκλος ἐστὶ νεφελοειδὴς ἐν μὲν τῷ ἀέρι διὰ παντὸς φαινόμενος, διὰ δὲ τὴν λευκόχροιαν γαλαξίας ὀνομαζόμενος. τῶν Πυθαγορείων οἱ μὲν ἔφασαν ἀστέρος εἶναι διάκαυσιν, ἐκπεσόντος μὲν ἀπὸ τῆς ἰδίας ἕδρας, διʼ οὗ δὲ περιέδραμε χωρίου κυκλοτερῶς αὐτὸ καταφλέξαντος ἐπὶ τοῦ κατὰ Φαέθοντα ἐμπρησμοῦ οἱ δὲ τὸν ἡλιακὸν ταύτῃ φασὶ κατʼ ἀρχὰς γεγονέναι δρόμον. τινὲς δὲ κατοπτρικὴν εἶναι φαντασίαν τοῦ ἡλίου τὰς αὐγὰς πρὸς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνακλῶντος, ὅπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς ἴριδος καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν νεφῶν συμβαίνει Μητρόδωρος διὰ τὴν πάροδον τοῦ ἡλίου· τοῦτον γὰρ εἶναι τὸν ἡλιακὸν κύκλον. Παρμενίδης τὸ τοῦ πυκνοῦ καὶ ἀραιοῦ μῖγμα γαλακτοειδὲς ἀποτελέσαι χρῶμα. Ἀναξαγόρας τὴν σκιὰν τῆς γῆς κατὰ τοῦτο τὸ μέρος ἵστασθαι τοῦ οὐρανοῦ, ὅταν ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ὁ ἥλιος γινόμενος μὴ πάντα φωτίζῃ. Δημόκριτος πολλῶν καὶ μικρῶν καὶ συνεχῶν ἀστέρων συμφωτιζομένων ἀλλήλοις συναυγασμὸν διὰ τὴν πύκνωσιν. Ἀριστοτέλης ἀναθυμιάσεως ξηρᾶς ἔξαψιν πολλῆς τε καὶ συνεχοῦς καὶ οὕτω κόμην πυρὸς ὑπὸ τὸν αἰθέρα κατωτέρω τῶν πλανητῶν. Ποσειδώνιος πυρὸς σύστασιν ἄστρου μὲν μανοτέραν αὐγῆς δὲ πυκνοτέραν.

[¶1] 2. SOME of the Pythagoreans say, that a comet is one of those stars which do not always appear, but after they have run through their determined course, they then rise and are visible to us. Others, that it is the reflection of our sight upon the sun, which gives the resemblance of comets much after the same manner as images are reflected in mirrors. Anaxagoras and Democritus, that two or more stars being in conjunction by their united light make a comet. Aristotle, that it is a fiery coalition of dry exhalations. Strato, that it is the light of the star darting through a thick cloud that hath invested it; this is seen in light shining through lanterns. Heraclides, native of Pontus, that it is a lofty cloud inflamed by a sublime fire. The like causes he assigns to the bearded comet, to those circles that arc seen about the sun or stars, or those meteors which resemble pillars or beams, and all others which are of this kind. This way unanimously go all the Peripatetics, believing that these meteors, being formed by the clouds, do differ according to their various configurations. Epigenes, that a comet arises from an elevation of spirit or wind, mixed with an earthy substance and set on fire. Boëthus, that it is a phantasy presented to us by inflamed air. Diogenes, that comets are stars. Anaxagoras, that those styled shooting stars fall down from the ether like sparks, and therefore are soon extinguished. Metrodorus, that it is a forcible illapse of the sun upon clouds which makes them to sparkle as fire. Xenophanes, that all such fiery meteors are nothing else but the conglomeration of the enfired clouds, and the flashing motions of them.

> Greek: 2. τῶν ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου τινὲς μὲν ἀστέρα φασὶν εἶναι τὸν κομήτην τῶν οὐκ ἀεὶ φαινομένων, διά τινος δʼ ὡρισμένου χρόνου περιοδικῶς ἀνατελλόντων· ἄλλοι δʼ ἀνάκλασιν τῆς ἡμετέρας ὄψεως πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον, παραπλησίαν ταῖς κατοπτρικαῖς ἐμφάσεσιν. Ἀναξαγόρας Δημόκριτος σύνοδον ἀστέρων δυεῖν ἢ καὶ πλειόνων κατὰ συναυγασμόν. Ἀριστοτέλης τῆς ξηρᾶς ἐκ γῆς ἀναθυμιάσεως διάπυρον σύστασιν. Στράτων ἄστρου φῶς περιληφθὲν νέφει πυκνῷ, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λαμπτήρων γίνεται. Ἡρακλείδης ὁ Ποντικὸς νέφος μετάρσιον ὑπὸ μεταρσίου φωτὸς καταυγαζόμενον. ὁμοίως δʼ, αἰτιολογεῖ πωγωνίαν ἅλω δοκίδα κίονα καὶ τὰ συγγενῆ τούτοις, καθάπερ ἀμέλει πάντες οἱ Περιπατητικοί, παρὰ τοὺς τοῦ νέφους ταυτὶ γίνεσθαι σχηματισμούς. Ἐπιγένης πνεύματος ἀναφορὰν γεωμιγοῦς πεπυρωμένου. Βόηθος ἀέρος ἀνημμένου φαντασίαν. Διογένης ἀστέρας εἶναι τοὺς κομήτας, Ἀναξαγόρας τοὺς καλουμένους διᾴττοντας ἀπὸ τοῦ αἰθέρος σπινθήρων δίκην καταφέρεσθαι διὸ καὶ παραυτίκα σβέννυσθαι. Μητρόδωρος τὴν εἰς τὰ νέφη τοῦ ἡλίου βιαίαν ἔμπτωσιν σπινθηρίζειν· Ξενοφάνης πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα νεφῶν πεπυρωμένων συστήματα ἢ κινήματα.

[¶2] 3. ANAXIMANDER affirms that all these are produced by the wind after this manner: the wind being enclosed by condensed clouds, by reason of its minuteness and lightness it violently endeavors to make its passage; and in breaking through the cloud it gives the noise; and the rending the cloud, because of the blackness of it, gives a resplendent flame. Metrodorus, that when the wind falls upon a cloud whose densing firmly compacts it, by breaking the cloud it causeth a great noise, and by striking and rending the cloud it gives the flame; and in the swiftness of its motion, the sun imparting heat to it, it throws out the thunderbolt. The weak declining of the thunderbolt ends in a violent tempest. Anaxagoras, that when heat and cold meet and are mixed together (that is, ethereal parts with airy), thereby a great noise of thunder is produced, and the color seen against the blackness of the cloud causes the flashing of fire; the full and great splendor is lightning, the more enlarged and embodied fire becomes a whirlwind, the cloudiness of it gives the hurricane. The Stoics, that thunder is the clashing of clouds one upon another, the flash of lightning is their fiery inflammation; their more rapid splendor is the thunderbolt, the faint and weak the whirlwind. Aristotle, that all these proceed from dry exhalations, which, if they meet with moist vapors, force their passage, and the breaking of them gives the noise of thunder; they, being very dry, take fire and make lightning; tempests and hurricanes arise from the plenitude of matter which each draw to themselves, the hotter parts attracted make the whirlwinds, the duller the tempests.

> Greek: 3. Ἀναξίμανδρος ἐκ τοῦ πνεύματος ταυτὶ πάντα συμβαίνειν ὅταν περιληφθὲν νέφει παχεῖ βιασάμενον τῇ λεπτομερείᾳ καὶ κουφότητι, τότε ἡ μὲν ῥῆξις τὸν ψόφον ἡ δὲ διαστολὴ παρὰ τὴν μελανίαν τοῦ νέφους τὸν διαυγασμὸν ἀποτελεῖ. Μητρόδωρος, ὅταν εἰς νέφος πεπηγὸς ὑπὸ πυκνότητος ἐμπέσῃ πνεῦμα, τῇ μὲν θραύσει τὸν κτύπον ἀποτελεῖ τῇ πληγῇ καὶ τῷ σχισμῷ διαυγάζει, τῇ δʼ ὀξύτητι τῆς φορᾶς προσλαμβάνον τὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου θερμότητα κεραυνοβολεῖ, τοῦ κεραυνοῦ τὴν ἀσθένειαν εἰς πρηστῆρα περιίστησιν. Ἀναξαγόρας, ὅταν τὸ θερμὸν εἰς τὸ ψυχρὸν ἐμπέσῃ, τοῦτο δʼ ἐστὶν αἰθέριον μέρος εἰς ἀερῶδες, τῷ μὲν ψόφῳ τὴν βροντὴν ἀποτελεῖ τῷ δὲ παρὰ τὴν μελανίαν τοῦ νεφώδους χρώματι τὴν ἀστραπήν, τῷ πλήθει καὶ μεγέθει τοῦ φωτὸς τὸν κεραυνόν, τῷ δὲ πολυσωματωτέρῳ πυρὶ τὸν τυφῶνα, τῷ δὲ νεφελομιγεῖ τὸν πρηστῆρα. οἱ Στωικοὶ βροντὴν μὲν συγκρουσμὸν νεφῶν, ἀστραπὴν δʼ ἔξαψιν ἐκ παρατρίψεως, κεραυνὸν δὲ σφοδροτέραν ἔκλαμψιν, πρηστῆρα δὲ· νωχελεστέραν Ἀριστοτέλης ἐξ ἀναθυμιάσεως καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα γίνεσθαι τῆς ξηρᾶς ὅταν οὖν ἐντύχῃ μὲν τῇ παραβιάζηται τὴν ἔξοδον, τῇ μὲν παρατρίψει καὶ τῇ ῥήξει τὸν ψόφον τῆς βροντῆς γίνεσθαι, τῇ δʼ ἐξάψει τῆς ξηρότητος τὴν ἀστραπὴν πρηστῆρας δὲ καὶ τυφῶνας τῷ πλεονασμῷ τῆς ὕλης, ἣν ἑκάτερος αὐτῶν συνεφέλκεται, θερμοτέραν μὲν ὁ πρηστὴρ παχυτέραν δʼ ὁ τυφών.

[¶3] 4. ANAXIMENES thinks that by the air being very much condensed clouds are formed; this air being more compacted, rain is compressed through it; when water in its falling down freezeth, then snow is generated; when it is encompassed with a moist air, it is hail. Metrodorus, that a cloud is composed of a watery exhalation carried into a higher place. Epicurus, that they are made of vapors; and that hail and rain are formed in a round figure, being in their long descent pressed upon by the circumambient air.

> Greek: 4. Ἀναξιμένης νέφη μὲν γίνεσθαι παχυνθέντος ὅτι πλεῖστον τοῦ ἀέρος, μᾶλλον δʼ ἐπισυναχθέντος ἐκθλίβεσθαι τοὺς ὄμβρους· χιόνα δʼ ἐπειδὰν τὸ καταφερόμενον ὕδωρ παγῇ, χάλαζαν δʼ ὅταν συμπεριληφθῇ τῷ ὑγρῷ πνεῦμά τι. Μητρόδωρος ἀπὸ τῆς ὑδατώδους ἀναφορᾶς συνίστασθαι τὰ νέφη. ὁ δʼ Ἐπίκουρος ἀπὸ τῶν ἀτόμων· στρογγυλαίνεσθαι δὲ τὴν χάλαζαν καὶ τὸν ὑετὸν ἀπὸ τῆς μακρᾶς καταφορᾶς ὑποπεπλασμένον.

[¶4] 5. THOSE things which affect the air in the superior places of it are of two sorts. Some have a real subsistence, such are rain and hail; others not. Those which enjoy not a proper subsistence are only in appearance; of this sort is the rainbow. Thus the continent to us that sail seems to be in motion. Plato says, that men admiring it feigned that it took origination from one Thaumas, which word signifies admiration. Homer says:
Jove paints the rainbow with a purple dye,
Alluring man to cast his wandering eye. Others therefore fabled that the bow hath a head like a bull, by which it swallows up rivers. But what is the cause of the rainbow? It is evident that what apparent things we see come to our eyes in right or in crooked lines, or by reflection: these last are incorporeal and to sense obscure, but to reason they are obvious. Those which are seen in right lines are those which we see through the air or horn or transparent stones, for all the parts of these things are very fine and tenuious; but those which appear in crooked lines are in water, the thickness of the water presenting them bended to our sight. This is the reason that oars in themselves straight, when put into the sea, appear to us crooked. The third manner of our seeing is by reflection, and this is perspicuous by mirrors. After this third sort the rainbow is affected. We conceive it is a moist exhalation converted into a cloud, and in a short space it is dissolved into small and moist drops. The sun declining towards the west, it will necessarily follow that the whole bow is seen opposite to the sun; for the eye being directed to those drops receives a reflection, and by this means the bow is formed. The eye doth not consider the figure and form, but the color of these drops; the first of which colors is a shining red, the second a purple, the third is blue and green. Let us consider whether the reason of this shining red color be the splendor of the sun falling upon these small drops, the whole body of light being reflected, by which this bright red color is produced; the second part being troubled, and the light languishing in the drops, the color becomes purple (for the purple is the faint red); but the third part, being more and more troubled, is changed into the green color. And this is proved by other effects of Nature; if any one shall put water in his mouth and spit it out so opposite to the sun that its rays may be reflected on the drops, he shall see the resemblance of a rainbow; the same appears to men that are blear-eyed, when they fix their watery eyes upon a candle. Anaximenes thinks the bow is thus formed; the sun casting its splendor upon a thick, black, and gross cloud, and the rays not being in a capacity to penetrate beyond the superficies. Anaxagoras, that, the solar rays being reflected from a condensed cloud, the sun being placed directly opposite to it forms the bow after the mode of the repercussion of a mirror; after the same manner he assigns the natural cause of the Parhelia or mock-suns, which are often seen in Pontus. Metrodorus, that when the sun casts its splendor through a cloud, the cloud gives itself a blue, and the light a red color.

> Greek: 5. τῶν μεταρσίων παθῶν τὰ μὲν καθʼ ὑπόστασιν γίνεται οἷον ὄμβρος χάλαζα, τὰ δὲ κατʼ ἔμφασιν ἰδίαν οὐκ ἔχοντα ὑπόστασιν· αὐτίκα γοῦν πλεόντων ἡμῶν ἡ ἤπειρος κινεῖσθαι δοκεῖ ἔστιν οὖν κατʼ ἔμφασιν ἡ ἶρις. Πλάτων φησὶ Θαύμαντος αὐτὴν γενεαλογῆσαι τοὺς ἀνθρώπους διὰ τὸ θαυμάσαι ταύτην. Ὅμηρος ἠύτε πορφυρέην ἶριν θνητοῖσι τανύσσει. διὸ καὶ ἐμυθεύσαντό τινες αὐτὴν ταύρου κεφαλὴν ἔχουσαν ἀναρροφεῖν τοὺς ποταμούς. πῶς οὖν γίνεται ἶρις; ὁρῶμεν δὴ κατὰ γραμμὰς ἢ κατʼ εὐθείας ἢ κατὰ καμπύλας ἢ κατʼ ἀνακλωμένας, γραμμὰς ἀδήλους λόγῳ θεωρητὰς καὶ ἀσωμάτους. κατὰ μὲν οὖν εὐθείας ὁρῶμεν τὰ ἐν ἀέρι καὶ τὰ, διὰ τῶν λίθων τῶν διαυγῶν καὶ κεράτων· λεπτομερῆ γὰρ ταῦτα πάντα. καμπύλας δὲ γραμμὰς καθʼ ὕδατος βλέπομεν γινομένας· κάμπτεται γὰρ ἡ ὄψις βίᾳ διὰ τὴν πυκνοτέραν τοῦ.· ὕδατος· ὕλην· διὸ καὶ τὴν κώπην ἐν τῇ θαλάσσῃ μακρόθεν καμπτομένην ὁρῶμεν. τρίτος τρόπος τοῦ βλέπειν τὰ ἀνακλώμενα ὡς τὰ κατοπτρικά· ἔστιν οὖν τὸ τῆς ἴριδος πάθος τοιοῦτον. δεῖ γὰρ ἐπινοῆσαι τὴν ὑγρὰν ἀναθυμίασιν εἰς νέφος μεταβάλλουσαν εἶτʼ ἐκ τούτου κατὰ βραχὺ εἰς μικρὰς ῥανίδας νοτιζούσας· ὅταν οὖν ὁ ἥλιος γένηται εἰς δυσμάς, ἀνάγκη πᾶσα ἶριν ἄντικρυς ἡλίου φαίνεσθαι, ὅτε ἡ ὄψις προσπεσοῦσα ταῖς ῥανίσιν ἀνακλᾶται, ὥστε γίνεσθαι τὴν ἶριν. εἰσὶ δʼ αἱ ῥανίδες οὐ σχήματος μορφαὶ ἀλλὰ χρώματος· καὶ ἔχει τὸ μὲν πρῶτον φοινικοῦν, τὸ δὲ δεύτερον ἁλουργὲς καὶ πορφυροῦν, τὸ δὲ τρίτον κυανοῦν καὶ πράσινον. μήποτʼ οὖν τὸ μὲν φοινικοῦν, ὅτι ἡ λαμπρότης τοῦ ἡλίου προσπεσοῦσα καὶ ἡ ἀκραιφνὴς λαμπηδὼν ἀνακλωμένη ἐρυθρὸν ποιεί καὶ φοινικοῦν τὸ χρῶμα· τὸ δὲ δεύτερον μέρος ἐπιθολούμενον καὶ ἐκλυόμενον μᾶλλον τῆς λαμπηδόνος διὰ τὰς ῥανίδας ἁλουργές· ἄνεσις γὰρ τοῦ ἐρυθροῦ τοῦτο. ἔτι δὲ μᾶλλον ἐπιθολούμενον τὸ δροσίζον εἰς τὸ πράσινον μεταβάλλει. ἔστιν οὖν τοῦτο δοκιμάσαι διʼ ἔργων· εἰ γάρ τις ἄντικρυς τῶν ἡλίου ἀκτίνων λάβῃ ὕδωρ καὶ πυτίσῃ αἱ δὲ ῥανίδες ἀνάκλασιν πρὸς τὸν ἣλιον λάβωσιν, εὑρήσει γινομένην ἶριν· καὶ οἱ ὀφθαλμιῶντες δὲ τοῦτο πάσχουσιν, ὅταν εἰς τὸν λύχνον ἀποβλέψωσιν. Ἀναξιμένης ἶριν γίνεσθαι κατʼ αὐγασμὸν ἡλίου πρὸς νέφει πυκνῷ καὶ παχεῖ καὶ μέλανι παρὰ τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι τὰς ἀκτῖνας εἰς τὸ πέραν διακόπτειν ἐπισυνισταμένας αὐτῷ. Ἀναξαγόρας ἀνάκλασιν ἀπὸ νέφους πυκνοῦ τῆς ἡλιακῆς περιφεγγείας, καταντικρὺ δὲ τοῦ κατοπτρίζοντος αὐτὴν ἀστέρος διὰ παντὸς ἵστασθαι. παραπλησίως δʼ αἰτιολογεῖται τὰ καλούμενα παρήλια, γινόμενα δὲ κατὰ τὸν Πόντον. Μητρόδωρος, ὅταν διὰ νεφῶν ἥλιος διαλάμψῃ, τὸ μὲν νέφος κυανίζειν τὴν δʼ αὐγὴν ἐρυθραίνεσθαι.

[¶5] 6. THESE rods and the mock-suns are constituted of a double nature, a real subsistence, and a mere appearance;— of a real subsistence, because the clouds are the object of our eyes; of a mere appearance, for their proper color is not seen, but that which is adventitious. The like affections, natural and. adventitious, in all such things do happen.

> Greek: 6. τὰ κατὰ τὰς ῥάβδους καὶ ἀνθηλίους συμβαίνοντα μίξει τῆς ὑποστάσεως καὶ ἐμφάσεως ὑπάρχει, τῶν μὲν νεφῶν ὁρωμένων, οὐ κατʼ οἰκεῖον δὲ χρῶμα, ἀλλʼ ἕτερον ὅπερ κατʼ ἔμφασιν φαίνεται. ἐν δὲ τούτοις πᾶσι τά τε κατὰ φύσιν καὶ τὰ ἐπίκτητα ὅμοια συμβαίνει πάθη.

[¶6] 7. ANAXIMANDER believes that wind is a fluid air, the sun putting into motion or melting the moist subtle parts of it. The Stoics, that all winds are a flowing air, and from the diversity of the regions whence they have their origin receive their denomination; as, from darkness and the west the western wind; from the sun and its rising the eastern; from the north the northern, and from the south the southern winds. Metrodorus, that moist vapors heated by the sun are the cause of the impetuousness of violent winds. The Etesian, or those winds which annually commence about the rising of the Little Dog, the air about the northern pole being more compacted, blow vehemently following the sun when he returns from the summer solstice.

> Greek: 7. Ἀναξίμανδρος ἄνεμον εἶναι ῥύσιν ἀέρος, τῶν λεπτοτάτων ἐν αὐτῷ καὶ ὑγροτάτων ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου κινουμένων ἢ τηκομένων. οἱ Στωικοὶ πᾶν πνεῦμα ἀέρος εἶναι ῥύσιν, ταῖς τῶν τόπων δὲ παραλλαγαῖς τὰς· ἐπωνυμίας παραλλάττουσαν· οἷον τὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ ζόφου καὶ τῆς δύσεως ζέφυρον, τὸν δʼ ἀπὸ τῆς ἀνατολῆς καὶ τοῦ ἡλίου ἀπηλιώτην, τὸν δʼ ἀπὸ τῶν ἄρκτων βορέαν, τὸν δʼ ἀπὸ τῶν νοτίων λίβα. Μητρόδωρος ὑδατώδους ἀναθυμιάσεως διὰ τὴν ἡλιακὴν ἔκκαυσιν γίνεσθαι ὁρμὴν πνευμάτων θείων τοὺς δʼ ἐτησίας πνεῖν, τοῦ πρὸς ταῖς ἄρκτοις παχυνθέντος ἀέρος, ὑποχωροῦντι τῷ ἡλίῳ κατὰ τὴν θερινὴν τροπὴν ἐπισυρρέοντος.

[¶7] 8. EMPEDOCLES and the Stoics believe that winter is caused by the thickness of the air prevailing and mounting upwards; and summer by fire, it falling downwards. This description being given by me of Meteors, or those things that are above us, I must pass to those things which are terrestrial.

> Greek: 8. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ χειμῶνα μὲν γίνεσθαι τοῦ ἀέρος ἐπικρατοῦντος τῇ πυκνώσει καὶ εἰς τὸ ἀνωτέρω βιαζομένου, θερείαν δὲ τοῦ πυρός, ὅταν εἰς τὸ κατωτέρω βιάζηται Περιγεγραμμένων δέ μοι τῶν μεταρσίων, ἐφοδευθήσεται καὶ τὰ πρόσγεια.

[¶8] 9. THALES and his followers say that there is but one earth. Hicetes the Pythagorean, that there are two earths, this and the Antichthon, or the earth opposite to it. The Stoics, that this earth is one, and that finite and limited. Xenophanes, that the earth, being compacted of fire and air, in its lowest parts hath laid a foundation in an infinite depth. Metrodorus, that the earth is mere sediment and dregs of water, as the sun is of the air.

> Greek: 9. Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ μίαν εἶναι τὴν γῆν. ἱκέτης ὁ Πυθαγόρειος δύο, ταύτην καὶ τὴν ἀντίχθονα. οἱ Στωικοὶ τὴν γῆν μίαν καὶ πεπερασμένην. Ξενοφάνης ἐκ τοῦ κατωτέρω μέρους εἰς ἄπειρον ἐρριζῶσθαι, ἐξ ἀέρος δὲ καὶ πυρὸς συμπαγῆναι. Μητρόδωρος τὴν μὲν γῆν ὑπόστασιν εἶναι καὶ τρύγα τοῦ ὕδατος, τὸν δʼ ἥλιον τοῦ ἀέρος.

[¶9] 10. THALES, the Stoics, and their followers say that the earth is globular. Anaximander, that it resembles a smooth stony pillar. Anaximenes, that it hath the shape of a table. Leucippus, of a drum. Democritus, that it is like a quoit in its surface, and hollow in the middle.

> Greek: 10. Θαλῆς καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ καὶ οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτῶν σφαιροειδῆ τὴν γῆν. Ἀναξίμανδρος λίθῳ κίονι τὴν γῆν προσφερῆ τῶν ἐπιπέδων. Ἀναξιμένης τραπεζοειδῆ. Λεύκιππος τυμπανοειδῆ. Δημόκριτος δισκοειδῆ μὲν τῷ πλάτει κοίλην δὲ τῷ μέσῳ.

[¶10] 11. THE disciples of Thales say that the earth is the centre of the universe. Xenophanes, that it is first, being rooted in the infinite space. Philolaus the Pythagorean gives to fire the middle place, and this is the hearth-fire of the universe; the second place to the Antichthon; the third to that earth which we inhabit, which is seated in opposition unto and whirled about the opposite,—which is the reason that those which inhabit that earth cannot be seen by us. Parmenides was the first that confined the habitable world to the two solstitial (or temperate) zones.

> Greek: 11. οἱ ἀπὸ Θάλεω τὴν γῆν μέσην. Ξενοφάνης πρώτην, εἰς ἄπειρον γὰρ ἐρριζῶσθαι. Φιλόλαος ὁ Πυθαγόρειος τὸ μὲν πῦρ μέσον, τοῦτο γὰρ εἶναι τοῦ παντὸς ἑστίαν· δευτέραν δὲ τὴν ἀντίχθονα, τρίτην ἣν οἰκοῦμεν γῆν ἐξ ἐναντίας κειμένην τε καὶ περιφερομένην τῇ ἀντίχθονα παρʼ ὃ καὶ μὴ ὁρᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν ἐν τῇδε τοὺς ἐν ἐκείνῃ. Παρμενίδης πρῶτος; ἀφώρισε τῆς γῆς τοὺς οἰκουμένους τόπους ὑπὸ ταῖς δυσὶ ζώναις ταῖς τροπικαῖς;.

[¶11] 12. LEUCIPPUS affirms that the earth vergeth towards the southern parts, by reason of the thinness and fineness that is in the south; the northern parts are more compacted, they being congealed by a rigorous cold, but those parts of the world that are opposite are enfired. Democritus, because, the southern parts of the atmosphere being the weaker, the earth as it enlarges bends towards the south; the northern parts are of an unequal, the southern of an equal temperament; and this is the reason that the earth bends towards those parts where the earth is laden with fruits and its own increase.

> Greek: 12. Λεύκιππος παρεκπεσεῖν τὴν γῆν εἰς τὰ μεσημβρινὰ μέρη διὰ τὴν ἐν τοῖς μεσημβρινοῖς ἀραιότητα, ἅτε δὴ πεπηγότων τῶν βορείων διὰ τὸ κατεψῦχθαι τοῖς κρυμοῖς, τῶν δʼ ἀντιθέτων πεπυρωμένων. Δημόκριτος διὰ τὸ. ἀσθενέστερον εἶναι τὸ μεσημβρινὸν τοῦ περιέχοντος αὐξομένην τὴν γῆν κατὰ τοῦτο ἐγκλιθῆναι τὰ γὰρ βόρεια ἄκρατα τὰ δὲ μεσημβρινὰ κέκραται ὅθεν κατὰ τοῦτο βεβάρηται, ὅπου περισσή ἐστι τοῖς καρποῖς καὶ τῇ αὔξῃ.

[¶12] 13. MOST of the philosophers say that the earth remains fixed in the same place. Philolaus the Pythagorean, that it is moved about the element of fire, in an oblique circle, after the same manner of motion that the sun and moon have. Heraclides of Pontus and Ecphantus the Pythagorean assign a motion to the earth, but not progressive, but after the manner of a wheel being carried on its own axis; thus the earth (they say) turns itself upon its own centre from west to east. Democritus, that when the earth was first formed it had a motion, the parts of it being small and light; but in process of time the parts of it were condensed, so that by its own weight it was poised and fixed.

> Greek: 13. οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι μένειν τὴν γῆν. Φιλόλαος δʼ ὁ Πυθαγόρειος κύκλῳ περιφέρεσθαι περὶ τὸ πῦρ κατὰ κύκλου λοξοῦ ὁμοιοτρόπως ἡλίῳ καὶ σελήνῃ. Ἡρακλείδης ὁ Ποντικὸς καὶ Ἔκφαντος ὁ Πυθαγόρειος κινοῦσι μὲν τὴν γῆν, οὐ μήν γε μεταβατικῶς ἀλλὰ τρεπτικῶς; τροχοῦ δίκην ἐνηξονισμένην, ἀπὸ δυσμῶν ἐπʼ ἀνατολὰς· περὶ τὸ ἴδιον αὐτῆς κέντρον. Δημόκριτος Κατʼ ἀρχὰς μὲν πλάζεσθαι τὴν γῆν διά τε μικρότητα καὶ κουφότητα, πυκνωθεῖσαν δὲ τῷ χρόνῳ καὶ βαρυνθεῖσαν καταστῆναι.

[¶13] 14. PYTHAGORAS says that, as the celestial sphere is distributed into five zones, into the same number is the terrestrial; which zones are the arctic and antarctic, the summer and winter tropics (or temperate zones), and the equinoctial; the middle of which zones equally divides the earth and constitutes the torrid zone; but that part which is in the middle of the summer and winter tropics is habitable, by reason the air is there temperate.

> Greek: 14. Πυθαγόρας τὴν γῆν ἀναλόγως τῇ τοῦ παντὸς σφαίρᾳ διῃρῆσθαι εἰς πέντε ζώνας, ἀρκτικὴν ἀνταρκτικὴν θερινὴν χειμερινὴν ἰσημερινήν, ὧν ἡ μέση τὸ μέσον τῆς γῆς ὁρίζει, παρʼ αὐτὸ τοῦτο διακεκαυμένη καλουμένη ἡ δʼ οἰκητή ἐστιν ἡ μέση τῆς θερινῆς καὶ χειμερινῆς, εὔκρατός τις οὖσα.

[¶14] 15. THALES and Democritus assign the cause of earthquakes to water. The Stoics say that it is a moist vapor contained in the earth, making an irruption into the air, that makes the earthquake. Anaximenes, that the dryness and rarety of the earth are the cause of earthquakes, the one of which is produced by extreme drought, the other by immoderate showers. Anaxagoras, that the air endeavoring to make a passage out of the earth, meeting with a thick superficies, is not able to force its way, and so shakes the circumambient earth with a trembling. Aristotle, that a cold vapor encompassing every part of the earth prohibits the evacuation of vapors; for those which are hot, being in themselves light, endeavor to force a passage upwards, by which means the dry exhalations, being left in the earth, use their utmost endeavor to make a passage out, and being wedged in, they suffer various circumvolutions and shake the earth. Metrodorus, that whatsoever is in its own place is incapable of notion, except it be pressed upon or drawn by the operation of another body; the earth being so seated cannot naturally be removed, yet divers parts and places of the earth may move one upon another. Parmenides and Democritus, that the earth being so equally poised hath no sufficient cause why it should incline rather to one side than to the other; so that it may be shaken, but cannot be removed. Anaximenes, that the earth by reason of its latitude is borne upon the air which presseth upon it. Others opine that the earth swims upon the waters, as boards and broad planks, and by that reason is moved. Plato, that motion is by six manner of ways, upwards, downwards, on the right-hand and on the left, behind and before; therefore it is not possible that the earth should be moved in any of these modes, for it is altogether seated in the lowest place; it therefore cannot receive a motion, since there is nothing about it so peculiar as to make it incline any way; but some parts of it are so rare and thin that they are capable of motion. Epicurus, that the possibility of the earth’s motion ariseth from a thick and aqueous air beneath the earth, which may, by moving or pushing it, be capable of its quaking; or that being so compassed, and having many passages, it is shaken by the wind which is dispersed through the hollow dens of it.

> Greek: 15. Θαλῆς μὲν καὶ Δημόκριτος ὕδατι τὴν αἰτίαν τῶν σεισμῶν προσάπτουσιν. οἱ δὲ Στωικοί φασι σεισμός ἐστι τὸ ἐν τῇ γῇ ὑγρὸν εἰς ἀέρα διακρινόμενον καὶ ἐκπῖπτον Ἀναξιμένης ξηρότητα καὶ ὑγρότητα τῆς γῆς αἰτίαν τῶν σεισμῶν, ὧν τὴν μὲν αὐχμοὶ γεννῶσι τὴν δʼ ἐπομβρίαι. Ἀναξαγόρας; ἀέρος ὑποδύσει τῇ μὲν πυκνότητι τῆς ἐπιφανείας προσπίπτοντος τῷ δʼ ἔκκρισιν λαβεῖν μὴ δύνασθαι τρόμῳ τὸ περιέχον κραδαίνοντος. Ἀριστοτέλης διὰ τὴν τοῦ ψυχροῦ πανταχόθεν ἀντιπερίστασιν, κάτωθεν καὶ ἄνωθεν αὐτῇ περιστάντος· τὸ γὰρ θερμὸν ἀνωτέρω γενέσθαι σπεύδει ἅτε δὴ κοῦφον ὄν· διὰ τοῦτο, ἐν ἀπολήψει γινομένης τῆς ξηρᾶς ἀναθυμιάσεως, τῇ σφηνώσει καὶ τοῖς ἀντελιγμοῖς διαταράττεσθαι. Μητρόδωρος μηδὲν ἐν τῷ οἰκείῳ τόπῳ σῶμα κινεῖσθαι, εἰ μή τις προώσειεν ἢ καθελκύσειε κατʼ ἐνέργειαν διὸ μηδὲ τὴν γῆν, ἅτε δὴ κειμένην φυσικῶς, κινεῖσθαι, τόπους δέ τινας αὐτῆς νοστεῖν τοῖς σάλοις. Παρμενίδης Δημόκριτος διὰ τὸ πανταχόθεν ἴσον ἀφεστῶσαν μένειν ἐπὶ τῆς ἰσορροπίας, οὐκ ἔχουσαν αἰτίαν διʼ ἣν δεῦρο μᾶλλον ἢ ἐκεῖσε ῥέψειεν ἄν· διὰ τοῦτο μόνον μὲν κραδαίνεσθαι μὴ κινεῖσθαι δέ. Ἀναξιμένης διὰ τὸ πλάτος ἐποχεῖσθαι τῷ ἀέρι. οἱ δέ φασιν ἐφʼ ὕδατος, καθάπερ τὰ πλαταμώδη καὶ σανιδώδη ἐπὶ τῶν ὑδάτων· διὰ τοῦτο κινεῖσθαι. Πλάτων πάσης μὲν κινήσεως ἓξ εἶναι περιστάσεις, ἄνω καὶ κάτω, ἐπὶ τὰ δεξιὰ καὶ θάτερα, ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν· κατʼ οὐδεμίαν δὲ τούτων ἐνδέχεσθαι τὴν γῆν κινεῖσθαι, ἐν τῷ πανταχόθεν κατωτάτην κειμένην· μένειν μὲν οὖν ἀκίνητον, μηδὲν ἔχουσαν ἐξαίρετον εἰς τὸ ῥέψαι μᾶλλον, τόπους δʼ αὐτῆς κατʼ ἀραιότητα σαλεύεσθαι. Ἐπίκουρος ἐνδέχεσθαι μὲν ὑπὸ πάχους ἀέρος τοῦ ὑποκειμένου ὑδατώδους ὄντος ἀνακρουομένην αὐτὴν καὶ οἷον ὑποτυπτομένην κινεῖσθαι, ἐνδέχεσθαι δὲ καὶ σηραγγώδη τοῖς κατωτέρω μέρεσι καθεστῶσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ διασπειρομένου πνεύματος εἰς τὰς ἀντροειδεῖς κοιλότητας ἐμπίπτοντος σαλεύεσθαι.

[¶15] 16. ANAXIMANDER affirms that the sea is the remainder of the primogenial humidity, the greatest part of which being dried up by the fire, the influence of the great heat altered its quality. Anaxagoras, that in the beginning water did not flow, but was as a standing pool; and that it was burnt by the motion of the sun about it, by which the oily part of the water being exhaled, the residue became salt and bitter. Empedocles, that the sea is the sweat of the earth burnt by the sun. Antiphon, that the sweat of that which was hot was separated from the other parts which were moist; these by seething and boiling became bitter, as happens in all sweats. Metrodorus, that the sea was strained through the earth, and retained some part of the density thereof; the same is observed in all those things which are strained through ashes. The schools of Plato, that the element of water being compacted by the rigor of the air became sweet, but that part which was exhaled from the earth, being enfired, became of a brackish taste.

> Greek: 16. Ἀναξίμανδρος τὴν θάλασσάν φησιν εἶναι τῆς πρώτης ὑγρασίας λείψανον, ἧς τὸ μὲν πλεῖον μέρος ἀνεξήρανε τὸ πῦρ τὸ δʼ ὑπολειφθὲν διὰ τὴν ἔκκαυσιν μετέβαλεν. Ἀναξαγόρας, τοῦ κατʼ ἀρχὴν λιμνάζοντος ὑγροῦ περικαέντος ὑπὸ τῆς ἡλιακῆς περιφορᾶς καὶ τοῦ λιπαροῦ ἐξατμισθέντος, εἰς ἁλυκίδα καὶ πικρίαν τὸ λοιπὸν ὑποστῆναι. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἱδρῶτα τῆς γῆς ἐκκαιομένης ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου διὰ τὴν ἐπὶ τὸ πλεῖον πίλησιν. Ἀντιφῶν ἱδρῶτα θερμοῦ, ἐξ οὗ τὸ περιληφθὲν ὑγρὸν ἀπεκρίθη, τῷ καθεψηθῆναι παραλυκίσαν, ὅπερ ἐπὶ παντὸς ἱδρῶτος συμβαίνει. Μητρόδωρος διὰ τὸ διηθεῖσθαι διὰ τῆς γῆς μετειληφέναι τοῦ περὶ αὐτὴν πάχους, καθάπερ τὰ διὰ τῆς τέφρας ὑλιζόμενα. οἱ ἀπὸ Πλάτωνος τοῦ στοιχειώδους ὕδατος τὸ μὲν ἐξ ἀέρος κατὰ περίψυξιν συνιστάμενον γλυκὺ γίνεσθαι, τὸ δʼ ἀπὸ γῆς κατὰ περίκαυσιν καὶ ἐκπύρωσιν ἀναθυμιώμενον ἁλμυρόν.

[¶16] 17. ARISTOTLE and Heraclides say, they proceed from the sun, which moves and whirls about the winds; and these falling with a violence upon the Atlantic, it is pressed and swells by them, by which means the sea flows; and their impression ceasing, the sea retracts, hence they ebb. Pytheas the Massilian, that the fulness of the moon gives the flow, the wane the ebb. Plato attributes it all to a certain oscillation of the sea, which by means of a mouth or orifice causes the alternate ebb and flow; and by this means the seas do rise and flow contrarily. Timaeus believes that those rivers which fall from the mountains of the Celtic Gaul into the Atlantic produce a tide. For upon their entering upon that sea, they violently press upon it, and so cause the flow; but they disemboguing themselves, there is a cessation of the impetuousness, by which means the ebb is produced. Seleucus the mathematician attributes a motion to the earth; and thus he pronounceth that the moon in its circumlation meets and repels the earth in its motion; between these two, the earth and the moon, there is a vehement wind raised and intercepted, which rushes upon the Atlantic Ocean, and gives us a probable argument that it is the cause the sea is troubled and moved.

> Greek: 17. Ἀριστοτέλης Ἡρακλείδης ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν πνευμάτων κινοῦντος καὶ συμπεριφέροντος· ὑφʼ ὧν ἐμβαλλόντων μὲν προωθουμένην ἀνοιδεῖν τὴν Ἀτλαντικὴν θάλασσαν, καὶ πατασκευάζειν τὴν πλήμμυραν, καταληγόντων δʼ ἀντιπερισπωμένην ὑποβαίνειν, ὅπερ εἶναι τὴν ἄμπωτιν. Πυθέας ὁ Μασσαλιώτης τῇ πληρώσει τῆς σελήνης τὰς πλημμύρας γίνεσθαι τῇ δὲ μειώσει τὰς ἀμπώτιδας. Πλάτων ἐπὶ τὴν αἰώραν φέρεται τῶν ὑδάτων εἶναι γάρ τινα αἰώραν διά τινος στομίου τρήματος περιφέρουσαν τὴν παλίρροιαν, ὑφʼ ἧς ἀντικυμαίνεσθαι τὰ πελάγη. Τίμαιος τοὺς ἐμβάλλοντας ποταμοὺς εἰς τὴν Ἀτλαντικὴν διὰ τῆς Κελτικῆς ὀρεινῆς αἰτιᾶται, προωθοῦντας μὲν ταῖς ἐφόδοις καὶ πλήμμυραν ποιοῦντας ὑφέλκοντας δὲ ταῖς ἀναπαύλαις καὶ ἀμπώτιδας κατασκευάζοντας. Σέλευκος ὁ μαθηματικὸς κινῶν καὶ οὗτος τὴν γῆν ἀντικόπτειν αὐτῆς τῇ δίνῃ φησὶ καὶ τῇ κινήσει τὴν περιστροφὴν τῆς σελήνης· τοῦ δὲ μεταξὺ ἀμφοτέρων τῶν σωμάτων ἀντιπερισπωμένου πνεύματος καὶ ἐμπίπτοντος εἰς τὸ Ἀτλαντικὸν πέλαγος, κατὰ λόγον αὐτῷ, συγκυκᾶσθαι τὴν θάλασσαν.

[¶17] 18. THE halo or circle is thus formed. A thick and dark air intervening between the moon or any other star and our eye, by which means our sight is dilated and reflected. when now our sight is incident upon the outward circumference of the orb of that star, there presently seems a circle to appear. This circle thus appearing is called the ἅλως or halo; and there is constantly such a circle seen by us, when such a density of sight happens. HAVING taken a survey of the general parts of the world, I will take a view of the particular members of it.

> Greek: 18. ἡ δʼ ἅλως οὑτωσὶν ἀποτελεῖται· μεταξὺ τῆς σελήνης ἤ τινος ἄλλου ἄστρου καὶ τῆς ὄψεως ἀὴρ παχὺς καὶ ὁμιχλώδης ἵσταται εἶτʼ ἐν τούτῳ τῆς ὄψεως κατακλωμένης καὶ εὐρυνομένης κᾆθʼ οὕτω τῷ κύκλῳ τοῦ ἄστρου προσπιπτούσης κατὰ, τὴν ἔξω περιφέρειαν, κύκλος δοκεῖ περὶ τὸ ἄστρον φαίνεσθαι ὃς κύκλος φαινόμενος ἅλως καλεῖται, ὅτι ἐστὶν ἅλῳ προσεοικώς, ἐκεῖ δοκοῦντος τοῦ φάσματος γίνεσθαι, ἔνθα συνέπεσε τὸ πάθος τῆς ὄψεως. περιωδευμένων δὲ τῶν τοῦ, κόσμου μερῶν, διαβήσομαι πρὸς τὰ, πατὰ μέρος.

## 5. Book IV

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/5/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/5/#p-N

[¶0] 1. THALES conjectures that the Etesian or anniversary northern winds blowing strongly against Egypt heighten the swelling of the Nile, the mouth of that river being obstructed by the force of the sea rushing into it. Euthymenes the Massilian concludes that the Nile is filled by the ocean and that sea which is outward from it, this being naturally sweet. Anaxagoras, that the snow in Ethiopia which is frozen in winter is melted in summer, and this makes the inundation. Democritus, that the snows which are in the northern climates when the sun enters the summer solstice are dissolved and diffused; from those vapors clouds are compacted, and these are forcibly driven by the Etesian winds into the southern parts and into Egypt, from whence violent showers are poured; and by this means the fens of Egypt are filled with water, and the river Nile hath its inundation. Herodotus the historian, that the waters of the Nile receive from their fountain an equal portion of water in winter and in summer; but in winter the water appears less, because the sun, making its approach nearer to Egypt, draws up the rivers of that country into exhalations. Ephorus the historiographer, that in summer all Egypt seems to be melted and sweats itself into water, to which the thin and sandy soils of Arabia and Lybia contribute. Endoxus relates that the Egyptian priests affirm that, when it is summer to us who dwell under the northern tropic, it is winter with them that inhabit under the southern tropic; by this means there is a various contrariety and opposition of the seasons in the year, which cause such showers to fall as make the water to overflow the banks of the Nile and diffuse itself throughout all Egypt.

> Greek: 1. Θαλῆς τοὺς ἐτησίας ἀνέμους οἴεται πνέοντας τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ ἀντιπροσώπους ἐπαίρειν τοῦ Νείλου τὸν ὄγκον διὰ τὸ τὰς ἐκροὰς αὐτοῦ τῇ παροιδήσει τοῦ ἀντιπαρήκοντος πελάγους ἀνακόπτεσθαι. Εὐθυμένης ὁ Μασσαλιώτης ἐκ τοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ καὶ τῆς ἔξω θαλάσσης γλυκείας κατʼ αὐτὸν οὔσης νομίζει πληροῦσθαι τὸν ποταμόν. Ἀναξαγόρας ἐκ τῆς. χιόνος τῆς ἐν τῇ Αἰθιοπίᾳ, τηκομένης μὲν τῷ θέρει ψυχομένης δὲ τῷ χειμῶνι. Δημόκριτος, τῆς χιόνος τῆς ἐν τοῖς πρὸς ἄρκτον μέρεσιν ὑπὸ θερινὰς τροπὰς ἀναλυομένης τε καὶ διαχεομένης, νέφη μὲν ἐκ τῶν ἀτμῶν πιλοῦσθαι τούτων δʼ ἀπελαυνομένων πρὸς μεσημβρίαν καὶ τὴν Αἴγυπτον· ὑπὸ τῶν ἐτησίων ἀνέμων, ἀποτελεῖσθαι ῥαγδαίους ὄμβρους, ὑφʼ ὧν ἀναπίμπλασθαι τάς τε λίμνας καὶ τὸν Νεῖλον ποταμόν. Ἡρόδοτος ὁ συγγραφεὺς ἴσον μὲν ἐκ τῶν πηγῶν φέρεσθαι χειμῶνος καὶ θέρους, φαίνεσθαι δʼ ἐλάττονα τοῦ χειμῶνος διὰ τὸ ἐν τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ πλησίον ἰόντα τὸν ἥλιον τῆς Αἰγύπτου ἐξατμίζειν τὰ νάματα. Ἔφορος ὁ ἱστοριογράφος κατὰ θέρος φησὶν ἀναχαλᾶσθαι τὴν ὅλην Αἴγυπτον καὶ οἱονεὶ ἐξιδροῦν τὸ πολὺ νᾶμα συνδίδωσι δʼ αὐτῇ καὶ ἡ Ἀραβία καὶ ἡ Λιβύη παρὰ τὸ ἀραιὸν καὶ ὑπόψαμμον. Εὔδοξος τοὺς ἱερεῖς φησι λέγειν τὰ ὄμβρια τῶν ὑδάτων κατὰ τὴν ἀντιπερίστασιν τῶν ὡρῶν ὅταν γὰρ ἡμῖν θέρος τοῖς ὑπὸ τὸν θερινὸν τροπικὸν οἰκοῦσιν, τότε τοῖς ὑπὸ τὸν χειμερινὸν τροπικὸν ἀντοίκοις χειμών ἐστιν, ἐξ ὧν τὸ πλημμῦρον ὕδωρ καταρρήγνυται.

[¶1] 2. THALES first pronounced that the soul is that being which is in a perpetual motion, or that whose motion proceeds from itself. Pythagoras, that it is a number moving itself; he takes a number to be the same thing with a mind. Plato, that it is an intellectual substance moving itself, and that motion is in a numerical harmony. Aristotle, that it is the first actuality (ἐντελέχεια) of a natural organical body which has life potentially; and this actuality must be understood to be the same thing with energy or operation. Dicaearchus, that it is the harmony of the four elements. Asclepiades the physician, that it is the concurrent exercitation of the senses.

> Greek: 2. Θαλῆς ἀπεφήνατο πρῶτος τὴν ψυχὴν φύσιν ἀεικίνητον ἢ αὐτοκίνητον. Πυθαγόρας ἀριθμὸν ἑαυτὸν κινοῦντα, τὸν δʼ ἀριθμὸν ἀντὶ τοῦ νοῦ παραλαμβάνει. Πλάτων οὐσίαν νοητήν, ἐξ ἑαυτῆς κινητὴν, κατʼ ἀριθμὸν ἐναρμόνιον κινουμένην. Ἀριστοτέλης ἐντελέχειαν πρώτην σώματος φυσικοῦ, ὀργανικοῦ, δυνάμει ζωὴν ἔχοντος· τὴν δʼ ἐντελέχειαν ἀκουστέον ἀντὶ τῆς ἐνεργείας. Δικαίαρχος; ἁρμονίαν τῶν τεσσάρων στοιχείων. Ἀσκληπιάδης ὁ ἰατρὸς συγγυμνασίαν τῶν αἰσθήσεων.

[¶2] 3. ALL those that have been named by me do affirm that the soul itself is incorporeal, and by its own nature is in a perpetual motion, and in its own essence is an intelligent substance, and the actuality of a natural organical body which has life. The followers of Anaxagoras, that it is airy and a body. The Stoics, that it is a hot breath. Democritus, that it is a fiery composition of things which are perceptible by reason, the same having their forms spherical and without an inflaming faculty; and it is a body. Epicurus, that it is constituted of four qualities, of a fiery quality, of an aerial quality, a pneumatical, and of a fourth quality which hath no name, but it contains the virtue of the sense. Heraclitus, that the soul of the world is the exhalation which proceeds from the moist parts of it; but the soul of animals, arising from exhalations that are exterior and from those that are within them, is homogeneous to it.

> Greek: 3. οὗτοι πάντες οἱ προτεταγμένοι ἀσώματον τὴν ψυχὴν ὑποτίθενται, φύσιν λέγοντες αὐτοκίνητον καὶ οὐσίαν νοητὴν καὶ τοῦ φυσικοῦ ὀργανικοῦ ζωὴν ἔχοντος ἐντελέχειαν. οἱ δʼ ἀπʼ Ἀναξαγόρου ἀεροειδῆ ἔλεγόν τε καὶ σῶμα. οἱ Στωικοὶ πνεῦμα θερμόν. Δημόκριτος πυρῶδες σύγκριμα ἐκ τῶν λόγῳ θεωρητῶν, σφαιρικὰς μὲν ἐχόντων τὰς ἰδέας πυρίνην δὲ τὴν δύναμιν, ὅπερ· σῶμα εἶναι. Ἐπίκουρος κρᾶμα ἐκ τεσσάρων, ἐκ ποιοῦ πυρώδους, ἐκ ποιοῦ ἀερώδους, ἐκ ποιοῦ πνευματικοῦ· ἐκ τετάρτου τινὸς ἀκατονομάστου, ὃ ἦν αὐτῷ αἰσθητικόν. Ἡράκλειτος τὴν μὲν τοῦ κόσμου ψυχὴν ἀναθυμίασιν ἐκ τῶν ἐν αὐτῷ ὑγρῶν, τὴν δʼ ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἀπὸ τῆς ἐκτὸς καὶ τῆς ἐν αὐτοῖς ἀναθυμιάσεως; ὁμογενῆ.

[¶3] 4. PLATO and Pythagoras, according to their former account distribute the soul into two parts, the rational and irrational. By a more accurate and strict account the soul is branched into three parts; they divide the unreasonable part into the concupiscible and the irascible. The Stoics say the soul is constituted of eight parts; five of which are the senses, hearing, seeing, tasting, touching, smelling, the sixth is the faculty of speaking, the seventh of generating, the eighth of commanding; this is the principal of all, by which all the other are guided and ordered in their proper organs, as we see the arms of a polypus aptly disposed. Democritus and Epicurus divide the soul into two parts, the rational, which hath its residence in the breast, and the irrational, which is diffused through the whole structure of the body. Democritus, that the quality of the soul is communicated to every thing, yea, to the dead corpses; for they are partakers of heat and some sense, when the most of both is expired out of them.

> Greek: 4. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων κατὰ μὲν τὸν ἀνωτάτω λόγον διμερῆ τὴν ψυχήν, τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει λογικὸν τὸ δʼ ἄλογον κατὰ δὲ τὸ προσεχὲς καὶ ἀκριβὲς τριμερῆ, τὸ γὰρ ἄλογον διαιροῦσιν εἴς τε τὸ θυμικὸν καὶ τὸ ἐπιθυμητικόν. οἱ Στωικοὶ ἐξ ὀκτὼ μερῶν φασι συνεστάναι, πέντε μὲν τῶν αἰσθητικῶν, ὁρατικοῦ ἀκουστικοῦ ὀσφρητικοῦ γευστικοῦ ἁπτικοῦ, ἕκτου δὲ φωνητικοῦ, ἑβδόμου δὲ σπερματικοῦ, ὀγδόου δʼ αὐτοῦ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ, ἀφʼ οὗ ταῦτα πάντα ἐπιτέταται διὰ τῶν οἰκείων ὀργάνων προσφερῶς ταῖς τοῦ πολύποδος πλεκτάναις. Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος διμερῆ τὴν ψυχήν, τὸ μὲν λογικὸν ἔχουσαν ἐν τῷ θώρακι καθιδρυμένον, τὸ δʼ ἄλογον καθʼ ὅλην τὴν σύγκρισιν τοῦ σώματος διεσπαρμένον. ὁ δὲ Δημόκριτος πάντα μετέχειν φησὶ ψυχῆς ποιᾶς, καὶ τὰ νεκρὰ τῶν σωμάτων· διότι ἀεὶ διαφανῶς τινος θερμοῦ καὶ αἰσθητικοῦ μετέχει, τοῦ πλείονος διαπνεομένου.

[¶4] 5. PLATO and Democritus place its residence in the whole head. Strato, in that part of the forehead where the eyebrows are separated. Erasistratus, in the Epikranis, or membrane which involves the brain. Herophilus, in that sinus of the brain which is the basis of it. Parmenides, in the whole breast; which opinion is embraced by Epicurus. The Stoics are generally of this opinion, that the seat of the soul is throughout the heart, or in the spirit which is about it. Diogenes, in the arterial ventricle of the heart, which is also filled with vital spirit. Empedocles, in the mass of the blood. There are that say it is in the neck of the heart, others in the pericardium, others in the midriff. Certain of the Neoterics, that the seat of the soul is extended from the head to the diaphragm. Pythagoras, that the animal part of the soul resides in the heart, the intellectual in the head.

> Greek: 5. Πλάτων Δημόκριτος ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ κεφαλῇ. Στράτων ἐν μεσοφρύῳ. Ἐρασίστρατος περὶ τὴν μήνιγγα τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου, ἣν ἐπικρανίδα λέγει. Ἡρόφιλος ἐν τῇ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου κοιλίᾳ, ἥτις ἐστὶ καὶ βάσις. Παρμενίδης ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ· θώρακι καὶ Ἐπίκουρος οἱ Στωικοὶ πάντες ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ καρδίᾳ ἢ τῷ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν πνεύματι. Διογένης ἐν τῇ ἀρτηριακῇ κοιλίᾳ τῆς καρδίας, ἥτις ἐστὶ καὶ πνευματική. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἐν τῇ τοῦ αἵματος συστάσει. οἱ δʼ ἐν τῷ τραχήλῳ τῆς καρδίας, οἱ δʼ ἐν τῷ περικαρδίῳ ὑμένι, οἱ δʼ ἐν τῷ διαφράγματι. τῶν νεωτέρων τινὲς διήκειν ἀπὸ κεφαλῆς μέχρι τοῦ διαφράγματος. Πυθαγόρας τὸ μὲν ζωτικὸν περὶ τὴν καρδίαν, τὸ δὲ λογικὸν καὶ νοερὸν περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν.

[¶5] 6. PLATO believes that the soul is in perpetual motion, but that the mind is immovable with respect to motion from place to place. Aristotle, that the soul is not naturally moved, but its motion is accidental, resembling that which is in the forms of bodies.

> Greek: 6. Πλάτων ἀεικίνητον μὲν τὴν ψυχήν, τὸν δὲ νοῦν ἀκίνητον τῆς μεταβατικῆς· κινήσεως. Ἀριστοτέλης ἀκίνητον τὴν ψυχὴν πάσης κινήσεως προηγουμένην, τῆς δὲ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς μετέχειν καθάπερ τὰ εἴδη τῶν σωμάτων.

[¶6] 7. PLATO and Pythagoras say that the soul is immortal; when it departs out of the body, it retreats to the soul of the world, which is a being of the same nature with it. The Stoics, when the souls leave the bodies, they are carried to divers places; the souls of the unlearned and ignorant descend to the coagmentation of earthly things, but the learned and vigorous endure till the general fire. Epicurus and Democritus, the soul is mortal, and it perisheth with the body. Plato and Pythagoras, that part of the soul of man which is rational is eternal; for though it be not God, yet it is the product of an eternal Deity; but that part of the soul which is divested of reason dies.

> Greek: 7. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων ἄφθαρτον εἶναι τὴν ψυχήν. … ἐξιοῦσαν γὰρ εἰς τὴν τοῦ παντὸς ψυχὴν ἀναχωρεῖν πρὸς τὸ ὁμογενὲς οἱ Στωικοὶ ἐξιοῦσαν ἐκ τῶν σωμάτων ὑποφέρεσθαι … τὴν μὲν ἀσθενεστέραν ἅμα τοῖς συγκρίμασι γίνεσθαι, ταύτην δʼ εἶναι τῶν ἀπαιδεύτων τὴν δʼ ἰσχυροτέραν, οἵα ἐστὶ περὶ τοὺς σοφούς, καὶ μέχρι τῆς ἐκπυρώσεως Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος φθαρτὴν τῷ σώματι συνδιαφθειρομένην, Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων τὸ μὲν λογικὸν ἄφθαρτον καὶ γὰρ τὴν ψυχὴν οὐ θεὸν ἀλλʼ ἔργον τοῦ ἀιδίου θεοῦ ὑπάρχειν· τὸ δʼ ἄλογον φθαρτόν.

[¶7] 8. THE Stoics give this definition of sense: Sense is the apprehension or comprehension of an object by means of an organ. There are several ways of expressing what sense is; it is either a habit, a faculty, an operation, or an imagination which apprehends by means of an organ of sense,—and also the eighth principal thing, from whence the senses are derived. The instruments of sense are intelligent spirits, which from the said commanding part reach unto all the organs of the body. Epicurus, that sense is a faculty, and that which is perceived by the sense is the product of it; so that sense hath a double acceptation,—sense which is the faculty, and the thing received by the sense, which is the effect. Plato, that sense is that commerce which the soul and body have with those things that are exterior to them; the power of which is from the soul, the organ by which is from the body; but both of them apprehend exterior objects by means of the imagination. Leucippus and Democritus, that sense and intelligence arise from external images; so neither of them can operate without the assistance of an image falling upon us.

> Greek: 8. οἱ Στωικοὶ ὁρίζονται οὕτως τὴν αἴσθησιν αἴσθησίς ἐστιν ἀντίληψις διʼ αἰσθητηρίου ἢ κατάληψις. πολλαχῶς δὲ λέγεται ἡ αἴσθησις τε γὰρ ἕξις καὶ ἡ δύναμις καὶ ἡ ἐνέργεια καὶ ἡ φαντασία ἡ καταληπτικὴ διʼ αἰσθητηρίου γίνονται, καὶ· αὐτὸ τὸ ἡγεμονικόν, ἀφʼ οὗ συνίσταται. πάλιν δʼ αἰσθητήρια λέγεται πνεύματα νοερὰ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ ἐπὶ τὰ ὄργανα τεταμένα. Ἐπίκουρος· τὸ μόριόν ἐστιν ἡ αἴσθησις ἥτις ἐστὶν ἡ δύναμις, καὶ τὸ ἐπαίσθημα ὅπερ ἐστὶ τὸ ἐνέργημα ὥστε διχῶς παρʼ αὐτῷ λέγεσθαι αἴσθησιν μὲν τὴν δύναμιν αἰσθητὸν δὲ τὸ ἐνέργημα. Πλάτων τὴν αἴσθησιν ἀποφαίνεται ψυχῆς καὶ σώματος κοινωνίαν πρὸς τὰ ἐκτός,· ἡ μὲν γὰρ δύναμις ψυχῆς τὸ δʼ ὄργανον σώματος ἄμφω δὲ· διὰ φαντασίας ἀντιληπτικὰ τῶν ἔξωθεν γίνεται. Λεύκιππος Δημόκριτος τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ τὴν νόησιν γίνεσθαι, εἰδώλων ἔξωθεν προσιόντων· μηδενὶ γὰρ ἐπιβάλλειν μηδετέραν χωρὶς τοῦ προσπίπτοντος εἰδώλου.

[¶8] 9. THE Stoics say that what the senses represent is true; what the imagination, is partly false, partly true. Epicurus, that every impression which either the sense or fancy gives us is true, but of those things that fall under the account of opinion, some are true, some false: sense gives us a false representation of those things only which are the objects of our understanding; but the fancy gives us a double error, both of things sensible and things intellectual. Empedocles and Heraclides, that the senses perceive by a just accommodation of the pores in every case; every thing that is perceived by the sense being congruously adapted to its proper organ.

> Greek: 9. οἱ Στωικοὶ τὰς μὲν αἰσθήσεις ἀληθεῖς, τῶν δὲ φαντασιῶν τὰς μὲν ἀληθεῖς τὰς δὲ ψευδεῖς. Ἐπίκουρος πᾶσαν αἴσθησιν καὶ πᾶσαν φαντασίαν ἀληθῆ, τῶν δὲ δοξῶν τὰς μὲν ἀληθεῖς τὰς δὲ ψευδεῖς· καὶ ἡ μὲν αἴσθησις μοναχῶς ψευδοποιεῖται κατὰ,τὰ νοητά, ἡ δὲ φαντασία διχῶς καὶ γὰρ αἰσθητῶν ἔστι φαντασία καὶ νοητῶν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς Ἡρακλείδης παρὰ τὰς συμμετρίας τῶν πόρων τὰς κατὰ μέρος αἰσθήσεις γίνεσθαι, τοῦ οἰκείου τῶν αἰσθητῶν ἑκάστῃ ἁρμόζοντος.

[¶9] 10. THE Stoics say that there are five senses properly so called, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching. Aristotle indeed doth not add a sixth sense; but he assigns a common sense, which is the judge of all compounded species; into this each sense casts its proper representation, in which is discovered a transition of one thing into another, like as we see in figure and motion where there is a change of one into another. Democritus, that there are several species of senses, which appertain to beings destitute of reason, to the Gods, and to wise men.

> Greek: 10. οἱ Στωικοὶ πέντε τὰς εἰδικὰς αἰσθήσεις, ὅρασιν ἀκοὴν ὄσφρησιν γεῦσιν ἁφήν. Ἀριστοτέλης ἕκτην μὲν οὐ λέγει, κοινὴν δʼ αἴσθησιν τὴν τῶν συνθέτων εἰδῶν κριτικήν, εἰς ἣν πᾶσαι συμβάλλουσιν αἱ ἁπλαῖ τὰς ἰδίας ἑκάστη φαντασίας· ἐν ᾗ τὸ μεταβατικὸν ἀφʼ ἑτέρου πρὸς ἕτερον, οἱονεὶ σχήματος καὶ κινήσεως, δείκνυται. Δημόκριτος πλείους εἶναι αἰσθήσεις, περὶ τὰ ἄλογα ζῷα καὶ περὶ τοὺς σοφοὺς καὶ περὶ τοὺς θεούς.

[¶10] 11. THE Stoics affirm that every man, as soon as he is born, has the principal and commanding part of his soul, which is in him like a sheet of writing-paper, to which he commits all his notions. The first manner of his inscribing is by denoting those notions which flow from the senses. Suppose it be of a thing that is white; when the present sense of it is vanished, there is yet retained the remembrance; when many memorative notions of the same similitude do concur, then he is said to have an experience; for experience is nothing else but the abundance of notions that are of the same form met together. Some of these notions are naturally begotten according to the aforesaid manner, without the assistance of art; the others are produced by discipline, learning, and industry; these only are properly called notions, the others are prenotions. But reason, which gives us the denomination of rational, is completed by prenotions in the first seven years. The conception of the mind is the vision that the intelligence of a rational animal hath received; when that vision falls upon the rational soul, then it is called the conception of the mind, for it hath derived its name from the mind (ἐννόημα from νοῦς). Therefore these visions are not to be found in any other animals; they are appropriated only to Gods and to us men. If these we consider generally, they are phantasms; if specifically, they are notions. As pence or staters, if you consider them according to their own value, are merely pence and staters; but if you give them as a price for a naval voyage, they are called not merely pence, etc., but your fraught.

> Greek: 11. οἱ Στωικοί φασιν· ὅταν γεννηθῇ ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἔχει τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν μέρος τῆς ψυχῆς ὥσπερ χάρτην εὐεργὸν εἰς ἀπογραφήν. εἰς τοῦτο μίαν ἑκάστην τῶν ἐννοιῶν ἐναπογράφεται. πρῶτος δʼ ὁ τῆς ἀναγραφῆς τρόπος ὁ διὰ τῶν αἰσθήσεων αἰσθανόμενοι γάρ τινος οἷον λευκοῦ, ἀπελθόντος αὐτοῦ μνήμην ἔχουσιν· ὅταν δʼ ὁμοειδεῖς πολλαὶ μνῆμαι γένωνται, τότε φαμὲν ἔχειν ἐμπειρίαν ἐμπειρία γάρ ἐστι τὸ τῶν ὁμοειδῶν πλῆθος. τῶν δʼ ἐννοιῶν αἱ μὲν φυσικῶς γίνονται κατὰ τοὺς εἰρημένους τρόπους καὶ ἀνεπιτεχνήτως, αἱ δʼ ἢδη διʼ ἡμετέρας διδασκαλίας καὶ ἐπιμελείας αὗται μὲν οὖν ἔννοιαι καλοῦνται μόνον, ἐκεῖναι δὲ καὶ προλήψεις. ὁ δὲ· λόγος, καθʼ ὃν προσαγορευόμεθα λογικοί, ἐκ τῶν προλήψεων συμπληροῦσθαι λέγεται κατὰ τὴν πρώτην ἑβδομάδα. ἔστι δʼ ἐννόημα φάντασμα διανοίας λογικοῦ ζῴου τὸ γὰρ φάντασμα, ἐπειδὰν λογικῇ προσπίπτῃ ψυχῇ, τότε ἐννόημα καλεῖται, εἰληφὸς τοὔνομα παρὰ τοῦ νοῦ. διόπερ τοῖς ἀλόγοις ζῴοις οὐ προσπίπτει φαντάσματα· ὅσα δὲ καὶ τοῖς θεοῖς καὶ ἡμῖν γε ταῦτα φαντάσματα μόνον ἐστίν ὅσα δʼ ἡμῖν, ταῦτα καὶ φαντάσματα κατὰ γένος καὶ ἐννοήματα κατʼ εἶδος· ὥσπερ τὰ δηνάρια καὶ οἱ στατῆρες, αὐτὰ μὲν καθʼ αὑτὰ ὑπάρχει δηνάρια καὶ στατῆρες· ἐὰν δ’ εἰς πλοίων δοθῇ μίσθωσιν, τηνικαῦτα πρὸς τῷ δηνάρια εἶναι καὶ ναῦλα λέγεται.

[¶11] 12. CHRYSIPPUS affirms, these four are different one from another. Imagination (he says) is that passion raised in the soul which discovers itself and that which was the efficient of it; for example, after the eye hath looked upon a thing that is white, the sight of which produceth in the mind a certain impression, this gives us reason to conclude that the object of this impression is white, which affecteth us. So is it with touching and smelling. Phantasy or imagination is denominated from φῶς, which denotes light; for as light discovers itself and all other things which it illuminates, so this imagination discovers itself and that which is the cause of it. The imaginable is the efficient cause of imagination; as any thing that is white, or any thing that is cold, or every thing that may make an impression upon the imagination. Fancy is a vain impulse upon the mind of man, proceeding from nothing which is really imaginable; this is experienced in those that whirl about their idle hands and fight with shadows; for to the imagination there is always some real imaginable thing presented, which is the efficient cause of it; but to the fancy nothing. A phantom is that to which we are led by such a fanciful and vain attraction; this is to be seen in melancholy and distracted persons. Of this sort was Orestes in the tragedy, pronouncing these words:
Mother, these maids with horror me affright;
Oh hurl them not, I pray, into my sight!
They’re smeared with blood, and cruel, dragon-like,
Skipping about with deadly fury strike. These rave as frantic persons, they see nothing, and yet imagine they see. Thence Electra thus returns to him:
O wretched man, securely sleep in bed;
Nothing thou seest, thy fancy’s vainly led. After the same manner Theoclymenus in Homer.

> Greek: 12. Χρύσιππος διαφέρειν ἀλλήλων φησὶ τέτταρα ταῦτα. φαντασία μὲν οὖν ἐστι πάθος ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γινόμενον, ἐνδεικνύμενον ἐν αὑτῷ καὶ τὸ πεποιηκός· οἷον, ἐπειδὰν ὅψεως θεωρῶμέν τὸ λευκόν, ἔστι πάθος τὸ ἐγγεγενημένον διὰ τῆς ὁράσεως ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ· καὶ κατὰ τοῦτο τὸ πάθος εἰπεῖν ἔχομεν, ὅτι ὑπόκειται λευκὸν κινοῦν ἡμᾶς. ὁμοίως καὶ διὰ τῆς ἁφῆς καὶ τῆς ὀσφρήσεως;. εἴρηται δʼ ἡ φαντασία ἀπὸ τοῦ φωτός· καθάπερ γὰρ τὸ φῶς αὑτὸ δείκνυσι καὶ τὰ ἄλλα τὰ ἐν αὐτῷ περιεχόμενα, καὶ ἡ φαντασία δείκνυσιν ἑαυτὴν καὶ τὸ πεποιηκὸς αὐτήν. φανταστὸν δὲ τὸ ποιοῦν τὴν φαντασίαν· οἷον τὸ λευκὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, καὶ πᾶν ὅ τι ἂν δύνηται κινεῖν τὴν ψυχήν, τοῦτʼ ἔστι φανταστόν. φανταστικὸν δʼ ἐστὶ διάκενος ἑλκυσμός, πάθος ἐν. τῇ ψυχῇ οῦδενὲις φανταστοῦ γινόμενον· καθάπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ σκιαμαχοῦντος καὶ κενοῖς ἐπιφέροντος τὰς χεῖρας τῇ γὰρ φαντασίᾳ ὑπόκειταί τι φανταστόν, τῷ δὲ φανταστικῷ οὐδέν. φάντασμα δʼ δ’ ἐστίν, ἐφʼ ὃ ἑλκόμεθα κατὰ τὸν φανταστικὸν διάκενον ἑλκυσμόν· ταῦτα δὲ γίνεται ἐπὶ τῶν μελαγχολώντων καὶ μεμηνότων. ὁ γοῦν τραγικὸς Ὀρέστης, ὅταν λέγῃ
ὦ μῆτερ, ἱκετεύω σε, μὴ πίσειέ μοι
τὰς αἱματωποὺς καὶ δρακοντώδεις κόρας·
αὗται γάρ, αὗται πλησίον θρώσκουσί μου
λέγει μὲν αὐφὰ ὡς μεμηνὼς ὁρᾷ δʼ οὐδέν, ἀλλὰ δοκεῖ μόνον· διὸ καί φησιν αὐτῷ Ἠλέκτρα
ὁρᾷς γὰρ οὐδὲν ὧν δοκεῖς σάφʼ εἰδέναι,
ὡς καὶ παρʼ Ὁμήρῳ Θεοκλύμενος Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος κατʼ εἰδώλων εἰσκρίσεις ᾤοντο τὸ ὁρατικὸν συμβαίνειν, καὶ κατά τινων ἀκτίνων ἔκκρισιν μετὰ τὴν πρὸς τὸ ὑποκείμενον ἔνστασιν πάλιν ὑποστρεφουσῶν πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν.

[¶12] 13. DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus suppose that sight is caused by the insinuation of little images into the visive organ, and by the entrance of certain rays which return to the eye after striking upon the object. Empedocles supposes that images are mixed with the rays of the eye; these he styles the rays of images. Hipparchus, that the visual rays extend from both the eyes to the superficies of bodies, and give to the sight the apprehension of those same bodies, after the same manner in which the hand touching the extremity of bodies gives the sense of feeling. Plato, that the sight is the splendor of united rays; there is a light which reaches some distance from the eyes into a congruous air, and there is likewise a light emitted from bodies, which meets and is joined with the fiery visual light in the intermediate air (which is liquid and mutable); and the conjunction of these rays gives the sense of seeing. This is Plato’s corradiancy, or splendor of united rays.

> Greek: 13. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τοῖς εἰδώλοις τὰς ἀκτῖνας ἀνέμιξε, προσαγορεύσας τὸ γιγνόμενον ἀκτινείδωλον συνθέτως. Ἵππαρχος ἀκτῖνάς φησιν ἀφʼ ἑκατέρου τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ἀποτεινομένας τοῖς πέρασιν αὑτῶν οἷον χειρῶν ἐπαφαῖς περικαθαπτούσας τοῖς ἐκτὸς σώμασι τὴν ἀντίληψιν αὐτῶν πρὸς τὸ ὁρατικὸν ἀποδιδόναι. Πλάτων κατὰ συναύγειαν, τοῦ μὲν ἐκ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν φωτὸς ἐπὶ ποσὸν ἀπορρέοντος εἰς τὸν ὁμογενῆ ἀέρα, τοῦ δʼ ἀπὸ τῶν σωμάτων φερομένου, τοῦ δὲ περὶ τὸν μεταξὺ ἀέρα εὐδιάχυτον ὄντα καὶ εὔτρεπτον συνεκτεινομένου τῷ πυρώδει τῆς ὄψεως αὕτη λέγεται Πλατωνικὴ συναύγεια.

[¶13] 14. EMPEDOCLES says that these images are caused by certain effluvias which, meeting together and insisting upon the superficies of the mirror, are perfected by that fiery quality emitted by the said mirror, which transmutes withal the air that surrounds it. Democritus and Epicurus, that the specular appearances are formed by the subsistence of the images which flow from our eyes; these fall upon the mirror and remain, while the light rebounds to the eye. The followers of Pythagoras explain it by the reflection of the sight; for our sight being extended (as it were) to the brass, and meeting with the smooth dense surface thereof it is struck back, and caused to return upon itself: the same appears in the hand, when it is stretched out and then brought back again to the shoulder. Any one may apply these instances to explain the manner of seeing.

> Greek: 14. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς κατʼ ἀπορροίας τὰς συνισταμένας μὲν ἐπὶ τῆς ἐπιφανείας τοῦ κατόπτρου τελειουμένας δʼ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐκκρινομένου ἐκ τοῦ κατόπτρου πυρώδους καὶ τὸν προκείμενον ἀέρα, εἰς ὃν φέρεται τὰ ῥεύματα, συμμεταφέροντος. Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος τὰς κατοπτρικὰς ἐμφάσεις γίνεσθαι κατʼ εἰδώλων ὑποστάσεις, ἅτινα φέρεσθαι μὲν ἀφʼ ἡμῶν συνίστασθαι δʼ ἐπὶ τοῦ κατόπτρου κατʼ ἀντιπεριστροφήν, οἱ ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου κατʼ ἀντανακλάσεις τῆς ὂψεως· φέρεσθαι μὲν γὰρ τὴν ὄψιν τεταμένην ὡς ἐπὶ τὸν χαλκόν, ἐντυχοῦσαν δὲ πυκνῷ καὶ λείῳ πληχθεῖσαν ὑποστρέφειν αὐτὴν ἐφʼ ἑαυτήν, ὅμοιόν τι πάσχουσαν τῇ ἐκτάσει τῆς χειρὸς καὶ τῇ ἐπὶ τὸν ὦμον ἀντεπιστροφῇ. δύναταί τις πᾶσι τούτοις τοῖς κεφαλαίοις χρῆσθαι ἐπὶ τοῦ πῶς ὁρῶμεν.

[¶14] 15. THE Stoics say that darkness is seen by us, for out of our eyes there issues out some light into it; and our eyes do not impose upon us, for they really perceive there is darkness. Chrysippus says that we see darkness by the striking of the intermediate air; for the visual spirits which proceed from the principal part of the soul and reach to the ball of the eye pierce this air, which, after they have made those strokes upon it, presses conically on the surrounding air, where this is homogeneous. For from the eyes those rays are poured forth which are neither black nor cloudy. Upon this account darkness is visible to us.

> Greek: 15. οἱ Στωικοὶ ὁρατὸν εἶναι τὸ σκότος· ἐκ γὰρ τῆς ὁράσεως προχεῖσθαί τινα εἰς αὐτὸ αὐγήν· καὶ οὐ ψεύδεται ἡ ὅρασις, βλέπεται γὰρ ταῖς ἀληθείαις, ὅτι ἔστι σκότος. Χρύσιππος κατὰ τὴν συνέντασιν τοῦ μεταξὺ ἀέρος ὁρᾶν ἡμᾶς, νυγέντος μὲν ὑπὸ τοῦ ὁρατικοῦ πνεύματος, ὅπερ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι τῆς κόρης διήκει, κατὰ δὲ τὴν πρὸς τὸν περικείμενον ἀέρα ἐπιβολὴν ἐντείνοντος αὐτὸν κωνοειδῶς, ὅταν ᾖ ὁμογενὴς ὁ ἀήρ. προχέονται δʼ ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως ἀκτῖνες πύριναι, οὐχὶ μέλαιναι καὶ ὁμιχλώδεις· διόπερ ὁρατὸν εἶναι τὸ σκότος.

[¶15] 16. EMPEDOCLES says that hearing is formed by the insidency of the air upon the spiral, which it is said hangs within the ear as a bell, and is beat upon by the air. Alcmaeon, that the vacuity that is within the ear makes us to have the sense of hearing, for the air forcing a vacuum gives the sound; every inanity affords a ringing. Diogenes, the air which is in the head, being struck upon by the voice, gives the hearing. Plato and his followers, the air which exists in the head being struck upon, is reflected to the principal part of the soul, and this causeth the sense of hearing.

> Greek: 16. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὴν ἀκοὴν γίνεσθαι κατὰ πρόσπτωσιν πνεύματος τῷ χονδρώδει, ὅπερ φησὶν ἐξηρτῆσθαι, ἐντὸς τοῦ ὠτὸς κώδωνος δίκην αἰωρούμενον καὶ τυπτόμενον. Ἀλκμαίων ἀκούειν ἡμᾶς τῷ κενῷ τῷ ἐντὸς τοῦ ὠτός· τοῦτο γὰρ εἶναι· τὸ διηχοῦν κατὰ τὴν τοῦ πνεύματος ἐμβολήν· πάντα γὰρ τὰ κενὰ ἠχεῖ. Διογένης, τοῦ ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ ἀέρος ὑπὸ τῆς φωνῆς τυπτομένου καὶ κινουμένου. Πλάτων καὶ οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ πλήττεσθαι τὸν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ ἀέρα· τοῦτον δʼ ἀνακλᾶσθαι εἰς τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν καὶ γίνεσθαι τῆς ἀκοῆς τὴν αἴσθησιν.

[¶16] 17. ALCMAEON believes that the principal part of the soul, residing in the brain, draws to itself odors by respiration. Empedocles, that scents insert themselves into the breathing of the lungs; for, when there is a great difficulty in breathing, odors are not perceived by reason of the sharpness; and this we experience in those who have the defluxion of rheum.

> Greek: 17. Ἀλκμαίων ἐν τῷ ἐγκεφάλῳ εἶναι τὸ ἡγεμονικόν τούτῳ οὖν ὀσφραίνεσθαι ἕλκοντι διὰ τῶν, ἀναπνοῶν τὰς ὀσμάς. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ταῖς ἀναπνοαῖς ταῖς ἀπὸ τοῦ· πνεύμονος συνεισκρίνεσθαι τὴν ὀδμήν· ὅταν γοῦν ἡ ἀναπνοὴ βαρεῖα γίνηται, κατὰ τραχύτητα μὴ συναισθάνεσθαι, ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν ῥευματιζομένων.

[¶17] 18. ALCMAEON says that a moist warmth in the tongue, joined with the softness of it, gives the difference of taste. Diogenes, that by the softness and sponginess of the tongue, and because the veins of the body are joined in it, tastes are diffused by the tongue; for they are attracted from it to that sense and to the commanding part of the soul, as from a sponge.

> Greek: 18. Ἀλκμαίων τῷ ὑγρῷ καὶ τῷ χλιαρῷ τῷ ἐν τῇ γλώττῃ πρὸς τῇ μαλακότητι διακρίνεσθαι τοὺς χυμούς. Διογένης; τῇ ἀραιότητι τῆς γλώττης καὶ τῇ μαλακότητι καὶ διὰ τὸ συνάπτειν τὰς ἀπὸ τοῦ σώματος εἰς αὐτὴν φλέβας διαχεῖσθαι τοὺς χυμοὺς ἑλκομένους ἐπὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ τὸ ἡγεμονικόν, καθάπερ ἀπὸ σπογγιᾶς, Πλάτων τὴν φωνὴν ὁρίζεται πνεῦμα διὰ στόματος ἀπὸ διανοίας ἠγμένον καὶ πληγὴν ὑπὸ ἀέρος διʼ ὤτων καὶ ἐγκεφάλου καὶ αἵματος μέχρι ψυχῆς διαδιδομένην.

[¶18] 19. PLATO thus defines a voice,—that it is a breath drawn by the mind through the mouth, and a blow given to the air and through the ear, brain, and blood transmitted to the soul. Voice is abusively attributed to irrational and inanimate beings; thus we improperly call the neighing of horses or any other sound by the name of voice. But properly a voice (φωνή) is an articulate sound, which illustrates (φωτίζει) the understanding of man. Epicurus says that it is an efflux emitted from things that are vocal, or that give sounds or great noises; this is broken into those fragments which are after the same configuration. Like figures are round figures with round, and irregular and triangular with those of the same nature. These falling upon the ears produce the sense of hearing. This is seen in leaking vessels, and in fullers when they fan or blow their cloths. Democritus, that the air is broken into bodies of similar configuration, and these are rolled up and down with the fragments of the voice; as it is proverbially said, One daw lights with another, or, God always brings like to like. Thus we see upon the shore, that stones like to one another are found in the same place, in one place the long-shaped, in another the round are seen. So in sieves, things that are of the same form meet together, but those that are different are divided; as pulse and beans falling from the same sieve are separated one from another. To this it may be objected: How can some fragments of air fill a theatre in which there is an infinite company of persons? The Stoics, that the air is not composed of small fragments, but is a continued body and nowhere admits a vacuum; and being struck with the breath, it is infinitely moved in waves and in right circles, until it fill that air which invests it; as we see in a fish-pool which we smite by a falling stone cast upon it; yet the air is moved spherically, the water orbicularly. Anaxagoras says a voice is then formed, when upon a solid air the breath is incident, which being repercussed is carried to the ears; after the same manner the echo is produced.

> Greek: 19. λέγεται δὲ καὶ καταχρηστικῶς ἐπὶ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων φωνὴ καὶ τῶν ἀψύχων, ὡς χρεμετισμοὶ καὶ ψόφοι· κυρίως δὲ φωνὴ ἡ ἔναρθρός ἐστιν, ὡς φωτίζουσα τὸ νοούμενον. Ἐπίκουρος τὴν φωνὴν εἶναι ῥεῦμα ἐκπεμπόμενον ἀπὸ τῶν φωνούντων ἢ ἠχούντων ἢ ψοφούντων· τοῦτο δὲ τὸ ῥεῦμα εἰς ὁμοιοσχήμονα θρύπτεσθαι θραύσματα ὁμοιοσχήμονα δὲ λέγεται τὰ στρογγύλα τοῖς στρογγύλοις καὶ σκαληνὰ καὶ τρίγωνα τοῖς ὁμοιογενέσι τούτων δʼ ἐμπιπτόντων ταῖς ἀκοαῖς, ἀποτελεῖσθαι τὴν αἴσθησιν τῆς φωνῆς· φανερὸν δὲ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἀπὸ τῶν ἀσκῶν ἐκρεόντων καὶ τῶν ἐμφυσώντων κναφέων τοῖς ἱματίοις. Δημόκριτος καὶ τὸν ἀέρα φησὶν εἰς ὁμοιοσχὴμονα θρύπτεσθαι σώματα καὶ συγκαλινδεῖσθαι τοῖς ἐκ τῆς φωνῆς θραύσμασι κολοιὸς γὰρ παρὰ κολοιὸν ἱζάνει καὶ ὡς αἰεὶ τὸν ὁμοῖον ἄγει θεὸς ὡς τὸν ὁμοῖον, καὶ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς αἰγιαλοῖς αἱ ὅμοιαι ψῆφοι κατὰ τοὺς αὐτοὺς τόπους ὁρῶνται, κατʼ ἄλλο μὲν αἱ σφαιροειδεῖς κατʼ ἄλλο δʼ αἱ ἐπιμήκεις· καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν κοσκινευόντων δʼ ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ συναλίζεται τὰ ὁμοιοσχήμονα, ὥστε χωρὶς εἶναι τοὺς κυάμους καὶ ἐρεβίνθους. ἔχοι δʼ ἄν τις πρὸς τούτους εἰπεῖν, πῶς ὀλίγα θραύσματα πνεύματος μυρίανδρον ἐκπληροῖ θέατρον; οἱ δὲ Στωικοί φασι τὸν ἀέρα μὴ συγκεῖσθαι ἐκ θραυσμάτων, ἀλλὰ συνεχῆ εἶναι, διʼ ὅλου μηδὲν κενὸν ἔχοντα ἐπειδὰν δὲ πληγῇ πνεύματι, κυματοῦται κατὰ κύκλους ὀρθοὺς εἰς ἄπειρον, ἕως πληρώσῃ τὸν περικείμενον ἀέρα, ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς κολυμβήθρας τῆς πληγείσης λίθῳ· καὶ αὕτη μὲν κυκλικῶς κινεῖται ὁ δʼ ἀὴρ σφαιρικῶς Ἀναξαγόρας τὴν φωνὴν γίνεσθαι πνεύματος ἀντιπεσόντος μὲν στερεμνίῳ ἀέρι, τῇ δʼ ὑποστροφῇ τῆς πλήξεως μέχρι τῶν ἀκοῶν προσενεχθέντος· καθὸ καὶ τὴν λεγομένην ἠχὼ γίνεσθαι.

[¶19] 20. PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the voice is incorporeal; for it is not the air that makes the voice, but the figure which compasseth the air and its superficies, having received a stroke, give the voice. But every superficies of itself is incorporeal. True it is that it moveth with the body, but of itself it hath no body; as we perceive in a staff that is bended, the matter only admits of an inflection, while the superficies doth not. According to the Stoics, a voice is corporeal, since every thing that is an agent or operates is a body; a voice acts and operates, for we hear it and are sensible of it; for it falls and makes an impression on the ear, as a seal of a ring gives its similitude upon the wax. Moreover, every thing that creates a delight or molestation is a body; harmonious music affects with delight, but discord is tiresome. And every thing that is moved is a body; and the voice moves, and having its illapse upon smooth places is reflected, as when a ball is cast against a wall it rebounds. A voice spoken in the Egyptian pyramids is so broken, that it gives four or five echoes.

> Greek: 20. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων Ἀριστοτέλης ἀσώματον· οὐ γὰρ τὸν ἀέρα, ἀλλὰ τὸ σχῆμα τὸ περὶ τὸν ἀέρα καὶ τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν κατὰ ποιὰν πλῆξιν γίνεσθαι φωνήν· πᾶσα δʼ ἐπιφάνεια ἀσώματος. συγκινεῖται μὲν γὰρ τοῖς σώμασιν αὐτὴ δʼ ἀσώματος πάντως καθέστηκεν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῆς καμπτομένης ῥάβδου ἡ μὲν ἐπιφάνεια οὐδὲν πάσχει ἡ δʼ ὕλη ἐστὶν ἡ καμπτομένη. οἱ δὲ Στωικοὶ σῶμα τὴν φωνήν· πᾶν γὰρ τὸ δρῶν ἢ καὶ ποιοῦν σῶμα, ἡ δὲ φωνὴ ποιεῖ καὶ δρᾷ ἀκούομεν γὰρ αὐτῆς καὶ αἰσθανόμεθα προσπιπτούσης τῇ ἀκοῇ,· καὶ ἐκτυπούσης καθάπερ δακτυλίου εἰς κηρόν. ἔτι πᾶν τὸ κινοῦν καὶ ἐνοχλοῦν σῶμά ἐστι, κινεῖ δʼ ἡμᾶς ἡ εὐμουσία ἐνοχλεῖ δʼ ἡ ἀμουσία. ἔτι πᾶν τὸ κινούμενον σῶμά ἐστι· κινεῖται δʼ ἡ φωνὴ καὶ προσπίπτει εἰς τοὺς λείους τόπους καὶ ἀντανακλᾶται, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῆς σφαίρας τῆς βαλλομένης εἰς τοῖχον ἐν γοῦν ταῖς κατʼ Αἴγυπτον πυραμίσιν ἔνδον μία φωνὴ ῥηγνυμένη τέτταρας ἢ καὶ πέντε ἤχους ἀπεργάζεται.

[¶20] 21. THE Stoics say that the highest part of the soul is the commanding part of it: this is the cause of sense, imagination, consents, and desires; and this we call the rational part. From this principal and commander there are produced seven parts of the soul, which are spread through the body, as the seven arms in a polypus. Of these seven parts, five are assigned to the senses, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching. Sight is a spirit which is extended from the commanding part to the eyes; hearing is that spirit which from the principal reacheth to the ears; smelling a spirit drawn from the principal to the nostrils; tasting a spirit extended from the principal to the tongue; touching is a spirit which from the principal is drawn to the extremity of those bodies which are obnoxious to a sensible touch. Of the rest, the one called the spermatical is a spirit which reacheth from the principal to the generating vessels; the other, which is the vocal and termed the voice, is a spirit extended from the principal to the throat, tongue, and other proper organs of speaking. And this principal part itself hath that place in our spherical head which God hath in the world.

> Greek: 21. οἱ Στωικοί φασιν εἶναι τῆς ψυχῆς ἀνώτατον μέρος τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν τὸ ποιοῦν τὰς φαντασίας καὶ συγκαταθέσεις καὶ αἰσθήσεις καὶ ὁρμάς· καὶ τοῦτο λογισμὸν καλοῦσιν. ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ ἑπτὰ μέρη ἐστὶ τῆς ψυχῆς ἐκπεφυκότα καὶ ἐκτεινόμενα εἰς· τὸ σῶμα, καθάπερ αἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ πολύποδος πλεκτάναι· τῶν δʼ ἑπτὰ μερῶν τῆς ψυχῆς πέντε μέν εἰσι τὰ αἰσθητήρια, ὅρασις ὄσφρησις ἀκοὴ γεῦσις καὶ ἁφή· ὧν ἡ μὲν ὅρασίς ἐστι πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρις ὀφθαλμῶν, ἀκοὴ δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρις ὤτων, ὄσφρησις δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι μυκτήρων, γεῦσις δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ, μέχρι γλώττης, ἁφὴ δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρις ἐπιφανείας εἰς θίξιν εὐαίσθητον τῶν προσπιπτόντων. τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν τὸ μὲν λέγεται σπέρμα, ὅπερ καὶ αὐτὸ πνεῦμά, ἐστι διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι τῶν παραστατῶν· τὸ δὲ φωνᾶεν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ζήνωνος εἰρημένον, ὃ καὶ φωνὴν καλοῦσιν, ἐστὶ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι φάρυγγος καὶ γλώττης καὶ τῶν οἰκείων ὀργάνων. αὐτὸ δὲ τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν ὥσπερ ἐν κόσμῳ κατοικεῖ ἐν τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ σφαιροειδεῖ κεφαλῇ.

[¶21] 22. EMPEDOCLES thinks, that the first breath the first animal drew was when the moisture in unborn infants was separated, and by that means an entrance was given to the external air into the gaping vessels, the moisture in them being evacuated. After this the natural heat, in a violent force pressing upon the external air for a passage, begets an expiration; but this heat returning to the inward parts, and the air giving way to it, causeth an inspiration. The respiration that now is arises when the blood is carried to the exterior surface, and by this fluxion drives the airy substance through the nostrils; thus in its recess it causeth expiration, but the air being again forced into those places which are emptied of blood, it causeth an inspiration. To evince which, he proposeth the instance of a water-clock, which gives the account of time by the running of water. Asclepiades supposeth the lungs to be in the manner of a tunnel, and maketh the cause of breathing to be the fineness of the inward parts of the breast; for thither the outward air which is more gross hastens, but is forced backward, the breast not being capable either to receive or want it. But there being always some of the more tenuous parts of the air left, so that all of it is not exploded, to that which there remains the more ponderous external air with equal violence is forced; and this he compares to cupping-glasses. All spontaneous breathings are formed by the contracting of the smaller pores of the lungs, and to the closing up of the pipes in the neck; for these are at our command. Herophilus attributes a moving faculty to the nerves, arteries, and muscles, but believes that the lungs are affected only with a natural desire of enlarging and contracting themselves. Farther, there is the first operation of the lungs by attraction of the outward air, which is drawn in because of the abundance of the external air. Next to this, there is a second natural appetite of the lungs; the breast, pouring in upon itself the breath, and being filled, is no longer able to make an attraction, and throws the superfluity of it upon the lungs, whereby it is in turn sent forth by way of expiration; the parts of the body mutually concurring to this function by the alternate participation of fulness and emptiness. So that to lungs pertain four motions;—first, when the lungs receive the outward air; secondly, when the outward air thus entertained is transmitted to the breast; thirdly, when the lungs again receive that air which they imparted to the breast; fourthly, when this air then received from the breast is thrown outwards. Of these four motions two are dilatations, one when the lungs attract the external air, another when the breast dischargeth itself of it upon the lungs; two are contractions, one when the breast draws into itself the air, the second when it expels this which was insinuated into it. The breast admits only of two motions;—of dilatation, when it draws from the lungs the breath, and of contraction, when it returns what it did receive.

> Greek: 22. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὴν πρώτην ἀναπνοὴν τοῦ πρώτου ζῴου γενέσθαι, τῆς μὲν ἐν τοῖς βρέφεσιν ὑγρασίας ἀποχώρησιν λαμβανούσης, πρὸς δὲ τὸ παρακενωθὲν ἐπεισόδου τοῦ ἐκτὸς ἀερώδους γινομένης εἰς τὰ παρανοιχθέντα τῶν ἀγγείων τὸ δὲ μετὰ τοῦτο ἤδη τοῦ ἐμφύτου θερμοῦ τῇ πρὸς τὸ ἐκτὸς ὁρμῇ τὸ ἀερῶδες ὑπαναθλίβοντος, τὴν ἐκπνοήν, τῇ δʼ εἰς τὸ ἐντὸς ἀνθυποχωρήσει τῷ ἀερώδει τὴν ἀντεπείσοδον παρεχομένου, τὴν εἰσπνοήν. τὴν δὲ νῦν κατέχουσαν φερομένου τοῦ αἵματος ὡς πρὸς τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν καὶ τὸ ἀερῶδες διὰ τῶν ῥινῶν ταῖς ἑαυτοῦ ἐπιρροίαις ἀναθλίβοντος κατὰ τὴν ἐκχώρησιν αὐτοῦ γίνεσθαι τὴν ἐκπνοήν· παλινδρομοῦντος δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἀέρος ἀντεπεισιόντος εἰς τὰ διὰ τοῦ αἵματος ἀραιώματα, τὴν εἰσπνοήν. ὑπομιμνήσκει δʼ αὐτὸ ἐπὶ τῆς κλεψύδρας. Ἀσκληπιάδης τὸν μὲν πνεύμονα χώνης δίκην συνίστησιν, αἰτίαν δὲ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς τὴν ἐν τῷ θώρακι λεπτομέρειαν ὑποτίθεται, πρὸς ἣν τὸν ἔξωθεν ἀέρα ῥεῖν τε καὶ φέρεσθαι παχυμερῆ ὄντα, πάλιν δʼ ἀπωθεῖσθαι, μηκέτι τοῦ θώρακος οἵου τʼ ὄντος μήτʼ ἐπεισδέχεσθαι μήθʼ ὑποστέγειν ὑπολειπομένου δέ τινος ἐν τῷ θώρακι λεπτομεροῦς ἀεὶ βραχέος ʽοὐ γὰρ ἅπαν ἐκκρίνεταἰ, πρὸς τοῦτο πάλιν τὸ εἴσω ὑπομένον βαρύτητα τοῦ ἐκτὸς ἀντεπεισφέρεσθαι. ταῦτα δὲ ταῖς σικύαις παρεικάζει· τὴν δὲ κατὰ προαίρεσιν ἀναπνοὴν γίνεσθαί φησι, συναγομένων τῶν ἐν τῷ πνεύμονι λεπτοτάτων πόρων καὶ τῶν βραγχίων στενουμένων τῇ γὰρ ἡμετέρᾳ ταῦθʼ ὑπακούει προαιρέσει. Ἡρόφιλος δυνάμεις ἀπολείπει περὶ τὰ σώματα τὰς κινητικὰς ἐν νεύροις ἐν ἀρτηρίαις ἐν μυσί· τὸν οὖν πνεύμονα νομίζει μόνον ὀρέγεσθαι διαστολῆς τε καὶ συστολῆς φυσικῶς· εἶτα δὲ καὶ τἆλλα. ἐνέργειαν μὲν οὖν εἶναι τοῦ πνεύμονος τὴν ἔξωθεν τοῦ πνεύματος ὁλκήν ὑπὸ δὲ τῆς πληρώσεως τῆς θύραθεν γινομένης ἐφέλκεται παρακειμένως δὲ διὰ τὴν δευτέραν ὄρεξιν ἐφʼ αὑτὸν ὁ θώραξ τὸ πνεῦμα μετοχετεύει, πληρωθεὶς δὲ καὶ μηκέτι ἐφέλκεσθαι δυνάμενος πάλιν εἰς τὸν πνεύμονα τὸ περιττὸν ἀντιμετερᾷ, διʼ οὗ πρὸς τὰ ἐκτὸς τὰ τῆς ἀποκρίσεως γίνεται, τῶν σωματικῶν μερῶν ἀντιπασχόντων ἀλλήλοις. ὅτε μὲν γὰρ διαστολὴ ὅτε δὲ συστολὴ γίνεται πνεύμονος, ταῖς ἀλλήλων ἀντιμεταλήψεσι πληρώσεώς τε καὶ κενώσεως γινομένης, ὡς τέσσαρας μὲν γίνεσθαι κινήσεις περὶ τὸν πνεύμονα, τὴν μὲν πρώτην καθʼ ἣν ἔξωθεν ἀέρα δέχεται, τὴν δὲ δευτέραν καθʼ ἣν τοῦθʼ ὅπερ ἐδέξατο θύραθεν ἐντὸς αὑτοῦ πρὸς τὸν θώρακα μετερᾷ, τὴν δὲ τρίτην καθʼ ἣν τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ θώρακος συστελλόμενον αὖθις εἰς αὑτὸν ἐκδέχεται, τὴν δὲ τετάρτην καθʼ ἣν τὸ ἐξ ὑποστροφῆς ἐν αὐτῷ γινόμενον θύραζε ἐξερᾷ τούτων δὲ τῶν κινήσεων δύο μὲν εἶναι διαστολάς, τὴν τʼ ἔξωθεν τὴν τʼ ἀπὸ τοῦ θώρακοσΣ· δύο δὲ συστολάς, τὴν μὲν ὅταν ὁ θώραξ ἐφʼ αὑτὸν τὸ πνευματικὸν ἑλκύσῃ, τὴν δʼ ὅταν αὐτὸς εἰς τὸν ἐκτὸς ἀέρα ἀποκρίνῃ δύο γὰρ μόναι γίνονται περὶ τὸν θώρακα, διαστολὴ μὲν ὅταν ἀπὸ τοῦ πνεύμονος ἐφέλκηται, συστολὴ δʼ ὅταν τούτῳ πάλιν ἀνταποδιδῷ οἱ Στωικοὶ τὰ μὲν πάθη ἐν τοῖς πεπονθόσι τόποις, τὰς δʼ αἰσθήσεις ἐν τῷ ἡγεμονικῷ.

[¶22] 23. THE Stoics say that all the passions are seated in those parts of the body which are affected, the senses have their residence in the commanding part of the soul. Epicurus, that all the passions and all the senses are in those parts which are affected, but the commanding part is subject to no passion. Strato, that all the passions and senses of the soul are in the rational or commanding part of it, and are not fixed in those places which are affected; for in this part patience takes its residence, and this is apparent in terrible and dolorous things, as also in timorous and valiant persons.

> Greek: 23. Ἐπίκουρος καὶ τὰ πάθη καὶ τὰς αἰσθήσεις ἐν τοῖς πεπονθόσι τόποις· τὸ, γὰρ ἡγεμονικὸν ἀπαθές. Στράτων καὶ τὰ πάθη τῆς ψυχῆς καὶ τὰς αἰσθήσεις ἐν τῷ ἡγεμονικῷ οὐκ ἐν τοῖς πεπονθόσι τόποις συνίστασθαι. ἐν γὰρ ταύτῃ κεῖσθαι τὴν ὑπομονήν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν δεινῶν καὶ ἀλγεινῶν καὶ ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνδρείων καὶ δειλῶν.

## 6. Book V

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/6/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/pseudo-plutarch-opinions-of-the-philosophers/6/#p-N

[¶0] 1. PLATO and the Stoics introduce divination as a divine enthusiasm, the soul itself being of a divine constitution, and this prophetic faculty being an inspiration, or an illapse of the divine knowledge into man; and sc likewise they explain interpretation by dreams. And these same admit many divisions of the art of divination. Xenophanes and Epicurus utterly refuse any such art of foretelling future contingencies. Pythagoras rejects all manner of divination which is by sacrifices. Aristotle and Dicaearchus admit only these two kinds of it, a fury by a divine inspiration, and dreams; they deny the immortality of the soul, yet they affirm that the mind of man hath a participation of something that is divine.

> Greek: 1. Πλάτων καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ τὴν μαντικὴν εἰσάγουσι κατὰ τὸ ἔνθεον, ὅπερ ἐστὶν ἐνθεαστικόν, καὶ τὸ ὀνειροπολικόν. οὗτοι τὰ πλεῖστα μέρη τῆς μαντικῆς ἐγκρίνουσι. Ξενοφάνης; καὶ Ἐπίκουρος ἀναιροῦσι τὴν μαντικήν. Πυθαγόρας δὲ μόνον τὸ θυτικὸν οὐκ ἐγκρίνει. Ἀριστοτέλης καὶ Δικαίαρχος τὸ κατʼ ἐνθουσιασμὸν μόνον παρεισάγουσι καὶ τοὺς ὀνείρους, ἀθάνατον μὲν εἶναι οὐ νομίζοντες τὴν ψυχὴν θείου δέ τινος μετέχειν αὐτήν.

[¶1] 2. DEMOCRITUS says that dreams are formed by the illapse of adventitious representations. Strato, that the irrational part of the soul in sleep becoming more sensible is moved by the rational part of it. Herophilus, that dreams which are caused by divine instinct have a necessary cause; but dreams which have their origin from a natural cause arise from the soul’s forming within itself the images of those things which are convenient for it, and which will happen; those dreams which are of a constitution mixed of both these have their origin from the fortuitous appulse of images, as when we see those things which please us; thus it happens many times to those persons who in their sleep imagine they embrace their mistresses.

> Greek: 2. Δημόκριτος τοὺς ὀνείρους γίνεσθαι κατὰ τὰς τῶν εἰδώλων παραστάσεις. Στράτων ἀλόγῳ φύσει τῆς διανοίας ἐν τοῖς ὕπνοις αἰσθητικωτέρας μέν πως γινομένης, παρʼ αὐτὸ δὲ τοῦτο τῷ γνωστικῷ κινουμένης. Ἡρόφιλος τῶν ὀνείρων τοὺς μὲν θεοπνεύστους,υς κατʼ ἀνάγκην γίνεσθαι τοὺς δὲ φυσικούς, ἀνειδωλοποιουμένης τῆς ψυχῆς τὸ συμφέρον αὑτῇ καὶ τὸ πρὸς τούτοις ἐσόμενον· τοὺς δὲ συγκραματικοὺς ἐκ τοῦ αὐτομάτου κατʼ εἰδώλων πρόσπτωσιν, ὅταν ἃ βουλόμεθα βλέπωμεν, ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν τὰς ἐρωμένας ὁρώντων ἐν ὕπνῳ γίνεται.

[¶2] 3. ARISTOTLE says, that seed is that thing which contains in itself a power of moving, whereby it is enabled to produce a being like unto that from whence it was emitted. Pythagoras, that seed is the sediment of that which nourisheth us, the froth of the purest blood, of the same nature as the blood and marrow of our bodies. Alcmaeon, that it is a part of the brain. Plato, that it is the deflux of the spinal marrow. Epicurus, that it is a fragment torn from the body and soul. Democritus, that it proceeds from all the parts of the body, and chiefly from the principal parts. as the flesh and muscles.

> Greek: 3. Ἀριστοτέλης. σπέρμα ἐστὶ τὸ δυνάμενον κινεῖν ἐν ἑαυτῷ εἰς τὸ ἀποτελέσαι τι τοιοῦτον, οἷόν ἐστι τὸ ἐξ οὗ συνεκρίθη. Πυθαγόρας ἀφρὸν τοῦ χρηστοτάτου αἵματος τὸ σπέρμα, περίττωμα τῆς τροφῆς, ὥσπερ τὸ αἷμα καὶ μυελόν. Ἀλκμαίων ἐγκεφάλου μέρος Πλάτων μυελοῦ τοῦ νωτιαίου ἀπόρροιαν. Ἐπίκουρος ψυχῆς καὶ σώματος ἀπόσπασμα. Δημόκριτος ἀφʼ ὅλων τῶν σωμάτων καὶ τῶν κυριωτάτων μερῶν, οἷον ὀστῶν σαρκῶν καὶ ἰνῶν.

[¶3] 4. LEUCIPPUS and Zeno say, that it is a body and a fragment of the soul. Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, that the spermatic faculty is incorporeal, as the mind is which moves the body; but the effused matter is corporeal. Strato and Democritus, that the very power is a body; for it is like spirit.

> Greek: 4. Λεύκιππος καὶ Ζήνων σῶμα· ψυχῆς γὰρ εἶναι ἀπόσπασμα. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων Ἀριστοτέλης ἀσώματον μὲν εἶναι τὴν δύναμιν τοῦ σπέρματος ὥσπερ νοῦν τὸν κινοῦντα, σωματικὴν δὲ τὴν ὕλην τὴν προχεομένην. Στράτων καὶ Δημόκριτος καὶ τὴν δύναμιν σῶμα πνευματικὴ γάρ.

[¶4] 5. PYTHAGORAS, Epicurus, and Democritus say, that women have a seminal projection, but their spermatic vessels are inverted; and it is this that makes them have a venereal appetite. Aristotle and Plato, that they emit a material moisture, as sweat we see produced by exercise and labor; but that moisture has no spermatic power. Hippo, that women have a seminal emission, but not after the mode of men; it contributes nothing to generation, for it falls without the matrix; and therefore some women without coition, especially widows, give the seed. The same also asserts that from men the bones, from women the flesh proceeds.

> Greek: 5. Πυθαγόρας Ἐπίκουρος Δημόκριτος καὶ τὸ θῆλυ προΐεσθαι σπέρμα· ἔχει γὰρ παραστάτας ἀπεστραμμένους διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ὄρεξιν ἔχει παρὰ τὰς χρήσεις Ἀριστοτέλης καὶ Ζήνων ὕλην μὲν ὑγρὰν προΐεσθαι οἱονεὶ ἀπὸ τῆς συγγυμνασίας ἱδρῶτας, οὐ μὴν σπέρμα πεπτικόν. ἵππων προΐεσθαι μὲν σπέρμα τὰς θηλείας οὐχ ἣκιστα τῶν ἀρρένων, μὴ μέντοι εἰς ζῳογονίαν τοῦτο συμβάλλεσθαι διὰ τὸ ἐκτὸς πίπτειν τῆς ὑστέρας· ὅθεν ἐνίας προΐεσθαι πολλάκις δίχα τῶν ἀνδρῶν σπέρμα, καὶ μάλιστα τὰς χηρευούσας. καὶ εἶναι τὰ μὲν ὀστᾶ παρὰ τοῦ ἄρρενος τὰς δὲ σάρκας παρὰ τῆς θηλείας.

[¶5] 6. ARISTOTLE says, that conception takes place when the womb is drawn forward by the natural purgation, and the monthly terms attract from the whole bulk part of the purest blood, and this is met by the genital seed of man. On the contrary, there is a failure by the impurity and inflation of the womb, by the passions of fear and grief, by the weakness of women, or the decay of strength in men.

> Greek: 6. Ἀριστοτέλης τὰς μὲν συλλήψεις γίνεσθαι προανελκομένης μὲν ὑπὸ τῆς καθάρσεως τῆς μήτρας, τῶν δὲ, καταμηνίων συνεπισπωμένων ἀπὸ τοῦ παντὸς ὄγκου μέρος τι τοῦ καθαροῦ αἵματος, ᾧ συμβαίνειν τὸν τοῦ ἄρρενος γόνον· μὴ γίνεσθαι δὲ τὰς κυήσεις παρʼ ἀκαθαρσίαν τῆς μήτρας ἢ ἐμπνευμάτωσιν ἢ φόβον ἢ λύπην ἢ ἀσθένειαν τῶν γυναικῶν ἢ διʼ ἀτονίαν τῶν ἀνδρῶν, Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἄρρενα καὶ θήλεα γίνεσθαι παρὰ θερμότητα καὶ ψυχρότητα ὅθεν ἱστορεῖται τοὺς μὲν πρώτους ἄρρενας πρὸς ἀνατολῇ καὶ μεσημβρίᾳ γεγενῆσθαι μᾶλλον ἐκ τῆς γῆς, τὰς δὲ θηλείας πρὸς ταῖς ἄρκτοις.

[¶6] 7. EMPEDOCLES affirms, that heat and cold give the difference in the generation of males and females. Hence is it, as histories acquaint us, that the first men had their original from the earth in the eastern and southern parts, and the first females in the northern parts thereof. Parmenides is of opinion perfectly contrariant. He affirms that men first sprouted out of the northern earth, for their bodies are more dense; women out of the southern, for theirs are more rare and fine. Hippo, that the more compacted and strong sperm, and the more fluid and weak, discriminate the sexes. Anaxagoras and Parmenides, that the seed of the man is naturally cast from his right side into the right side of the womb, or from the left side of the man into the left side of the womb; when there is an alteration in this course of nature, females are generated. Cleophanes, whom Aristotle makes mention of, assigns the generation of men to the right testicle, of women to the left. Leucippus gives the reason of it to the alteration or diversity of parts, according to which the man hath a yard, the female the matrix; as to any other reason he is silent. Democritus, that the parts which are common to both sexes are engendered indifferently by one or the other; but the peculiar parts by the one that is more prevalent. Hippo, that if the spermatic faculty be more effectual, the male, if the nutritive aliment, the female is generated.

> Greek: 7. Παρμενίδης ἀντιστρόφως· τὰ μὲν πρὸς ταῖς ἄρκτοις ἄρρενα βλαστῆσαι, τοῦ γὰρ πυκνοῦ μετέχειν πλείονος· τὰ δὲ πρὸς ταῖς μεσημβρίαις θήλεα παρὰ τὴν ἀραιότητα. Ἱππῶναξ παρὰ τὸ συνεστὼς καὶ ἰσχυρὸν ἢ πσρὰ τὸ ῥευστικόν τε καὶ ἀσθενέστερον σπέρμα. Ἀναξαγόρας Παρμενίδης τὰ μὲν ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν καταβάλλεσθαι εἰς τὰ δεξιὰ μέρη τῆς μήτρας, τὰ δʼ ἐκ τῶν ἀριστερῶν εἰς τὰ ἀριστερά· εἰ δʼ ἐναλλαγείη τὰ τῆς καταβολῆς, γίνεσθαι θήλεα. Λεωφάνης, οὗ μέμνηται Ἀριστοτέλης, τὰ μὲν ἐκ τοῦ δεξιοῦ διδύμου τὰ δʼ ἐκ τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ. Λεύκιππος διὰ τὴν παραλλαγὴν τῶν μορίων, καθʼ ἣν ὁ μὲν καυλὸν ἡ δὲ μήτραν ἔχει· τοσοῦτον γὰρ μόνον λέγει. Δημόκριτος τὰ μὲν κοινὰ μέρη ἐξ ὁποτέρου ἂν τύχῃ, τὰ δʼ ἰδιάζοντα καὶ κατʼ ἐπικράτειαν. Ἱππῶναξ, εἰ μὲν ἡ γονὴ κρατήσειεν, ἄρρεν εἰ δʼ ἡ τροφή, θῆλυ.

[¶7] 8. EMPEDOCLES believes that monsters receive their origination from the abundance or defect of seed, or from its division into parts which are superabundant, or from some perturbation in the motion, or else that there is an error by a lapse into an improper receptacle; and thus he presumes he hath given all the causes of monstrous conceptions. Strato, that it comes from addition, subtraction, or transposition of the seed, or the distension or inflation of the matrix. And some physicians say that the matrix suffers distortion, being distended with wind.

> Greek: 8. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τέρατα γίνεσθαι παρὰ πλεονασμὸν σπέρματος ἢ παρʼ ἔλλειψιν ἢ παρὰ τὴν τῆς κινήσεως ταραχὴν ἢ παρὰ τὴν εἰς πλείω διαίρεσιν ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἀπονεύειν· οὕτω προειληφὼς φαίνεται σχεδόν τι πάσας τὰς αἰτιολογίας. Στράτων παρὰ πρόσθεσιν ἢ ἀφαίρεσιν ἢ μετάθεσιν ἢ πνευμάτωσιν. τῶν ἰατρῶν τινες παρὰ τὸ διαστρέφεσθαι τότε τὴν μήτραν ἐμπνευματουμένην.

[¶8] 9. DIOCLES the physician says that either no genital sperm is projected, or, if there be, it is in a less quantity than nature requires, or there is no prolific faculty in it; or there is a deficiency of a due proportion of heat, cold, moisture, and dryness; or there is a resolution of the generative parts. The Stoics attribute sterility to the obliquity of the yard, by which means it is not able to ejaculate in a due manner, or to the unproportionable magnitude of the parts, the matrix being so contracted as not to be in a capacity to receive. Erasistratus assigns it to the womb’s being more callous or more carneous, thinner or smaller, than nature does require.

> Greek: 9. Διοκλῆς ὁ ἰατρὸς ἢ παρὰ τὸ μηδʼ ὅλως ἐνίας σπέρμα προΐεσθαι ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἔλαττον τοῦ δέοντος ἢ διὰ τὸ τοιοῦτον, ἐν ᾧ τὸ ζῳοποιητικὸν οὐκ ἔστιν· ἢ διὰ θερμασίας ἢ ψύξεως ἢ ὑγρασίας ἢ ξηρότητος ἔνδειαν ἢ κατὰ παράλυσιν τῶν μορίων. οἱ δὲ Στωικοὶ κατὰ λοξότητα τοῦ καυλοῦ; μὴ δυναμένου τὸν γόνον εὐθυβολεῖν ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἀσύμμετρον τῶν μορίων ὡς πρὸς τὴν ἀπόστασιν τῆς μήτρας. Ἐρασίστρατος παρὰ τὴν μήτραν, ὅταν τύλους ἔχῃ καὶ σαρκώσεις, ἢ ἀραιοτέρα ᾖ τοῦ κατὰ φύσιν ἢ· μικροτέρα.

[¶9] 10. EMPEDOCLES affirms, that the superabundance of sperm and the division of it causes the bringing forth of two or three infants. Asclepiades, that it is performed from the excellent quality of the sperm, after the manner that from the root of one barleycorn two or three stalks do grow; sperm that is of this quality is the most prolific. Erasistratus, that superfetation may happen to women as to irrational creatures; for, if the womb be well purged and very clean, then there may be divers births. The Stoics, that it ariseth from the various receptacles that are in the womb: when the seed illapses into the first and second of them at once, then there are conceptions upon conception; and so two or three infants are born.

> Greek: 10. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δίδυμα καὶ τρίδυμα γίνεσθαι κατὰ πλεονασμὸν καὶ περισχισμὸν τοῦ σπέρματος. Ἀσκληπιάδης παρὰ τὴν τῶν σπερμάτων διαφοράν, ὥσπερ τὰς κριθὰς τὰς διστίχους καὶ τριστίχουσʼ εἶναι γὰρ σπέρματα γονιμώτατα. Ἐρασίστρατος διὰ τὰς ἐπισυλλήψεις, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων· ὅταν γὰρ ἡ μήτρα ᾖ κεκαθαρμένη, τότε ἐπισύλληψιν δέχεσθαι. οἱ Στωικοὶ παρὰ τοὺς ἐν τῇ μήτρᾳ τόπους ὅταν γὰρ εἰς πρῶτον καὶ δεύτερον ἐμπέσῃ τὸ σπέρμα, τότε γίνεσθαι τὰς ἐπισυλλήψεις καὶ τὰ δίδυμα καὶ τὰ τρίδυμα.

[¶10] 11. EMPEDOCLES says, that the similitude of children to their parents proceeds from the vigorous prevalency of the generating sperm; the dissimilitude from the evaporation of the natural heat contained in the same. Parmenides, that when the sperm descends from the right side of the womb, then the infant gives the resemblance of the father; if from the left, it is stamped with the similitude of the mother. The Stoics, that the whole body and soul give the sperm; and hence arise the resemblances in the characters and figures of the children, as a painter in his copy imitates the colors which are in the picture before him. Women have a concurrent emission of seed; if the feminine seed have the predominancy, then the child resembles the mother; if the masculine, the father.

> Greek: 11. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ὁμοιότητας γίνεσθαι κατʼ ἐπικράτειαν τῶν σπερματικῶν γόνων, ἀνομοιότητας δὲ τῆς ἐν τῷ σπέρματι θερμασίας ἐξατμισθείσης. Παρμενίδης, ὅταν μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ δεξιοῦ μέρους τῆς μήτρας ὁ γόνος ἀποκριθῇ, τοῖς πατράσιν· ὅταν δʼ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ, ταῖς μητράσιν. οἱ Στωικοὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ σώματος ὅλου καὶ τῆς ψυχῆς φέρεσθαι τὰ σπέρματα, καὶ τὰς ὁμοιότητας ἀναπλάττεσθαι ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν γενῶν τοὺς τύπους καὶ τοὺς χαρακτῆρας, ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ ζῳγράφον ἀπὸ τῶν ὁμοίων χρωμάτων εἰκόνα τοῦ βλεπομένου. προΐεσθαι δὲ καὶ τὴν γυναῖκα σπέρμα· κἂν μὲν ἐπικρατήσῃ τὸ τῆς γυναικός, ὅμοιον εἶναι τὸ γεννώμενον τῇ μητρί· ἐὰν δὲ τὸ τοῦ ἀνδρός, τῷ πατρί.

[¶11] 12. THE greatest part of physicians affirm, that this happens casually and fortuitously; for, when the sperm of the man and woman is too much refrigerated, then children carry a dissimilitude to their parents. Empedocles, that a woman’s imagination when she conceives impresses a shape upon the infant; for women have been enamored with images and statues, and the children which were born of them gave their similitudes. The Stoics, that the resemblances flow from the sympathy and consent of minds, by the insertion of effluvias and rays, not of images or pictures.

> Greek: 12. οἱ μὲν πλεῖστοι τῶν ἰατρῶν τυχικῶς καὶ ἐκ τοῦ αὐτομάτου, ὅταν διαψυχθῇ τὸ σπέρμα καὶ τὸ τοῦ ἀνδρὸς καὶ τὸ τῆς γυναικός, ἀνόμοια γίνεσθαι τὰ παιδία. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τῇ κατὰ τὴν σύλληψιν φαντασίᾳ τῆς γυναικὸς μορφοῦσθαι τὰ βρέφη· πολλάκις γὰρ ἀνδριάντων καὶ εἰκόνων ἠράσθησαν γυναῖκες, καὶ ὅμοια τούτοις ἀπέτεκον. οἱ Στωικοὶ συμπαθείᾳ τῆς διανοίας κατὰ ῥευμάτων εἰσκρίσεις καὶ ἀκτίνων οὐκ εἰδώλων γίνεσθαι τὰς ἄλλων ὁμοιότητας.

[¶12] 13. THE physicians maintain, that sterility in women may arise from the womb; for if it be after any ways thus affected, there will be barrenness,—if it be more condensed, or more spongy, or more hardened, or more callous, or more carneous; or it may be from low spirits, or from an atrophy or vicious distemper of body; or, lastly, it may arise from a twisted or distorted configuration. Diocles holds that the sterility in men ariseth from some of these causes,—either that they cannot at all ejaculate any sperm, or if they do, it is less than nature doth require, or else there is no generative faculty in the sperm, or the genital members are flagging; or from the obliquity of the yard. The Stoics attribute the cause of sterility to the contrariant qualities and dispositions of those who lie with one another; but if it chance that these persons are separated, and there happen a conjunction of those who are of a suitable temperament, then there is a commixture according to nature, and by this means an infant is formed.

> Greek: 13. οἱ ἰατροὶ στεῖραι γίνεσθαι παρὰ τὴν μήτραν ἢ παρὰ τὸ πυκνοτέραν εἶναι ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἀραιοτέραν ἢ παρὰ τὸ σκληροτέραν ἢ παρά τινας ἐπιπωρώσεις ἢ σαρκώσεις ἢ παρὰ μικροθυμίαν ἢ παρʼ ἀτροφίαν ἢ παρὰ καχεξίαν ἢ παρὰ τὸ διαστρέφεσθαι τὸν σχηματισμὸν ἢ διὰ παρασπασμόν. Διοκλῆς ἀγόνους τοὺς ἄνδρας ἢ παρὰ τὸ μηδʼ ὅλως ἐνίους σπέρμα προΐεσθαι ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἔλαττον τοῦ δέοντος· ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἄγονον εἶναι. τὸ σπέρμα ἢ κατὰ παράλυσιν τῶν μορίων ἢ κατὰ λοξότητα τοῦ καυλοῦ, μὴ δυναμένου τὸν γόνον εὐθυβολεῖν, ἢ παρὰ τὸ ἀσύμμετρον τῶν μορίων πρὸς τὴν ἀπόστασιν τῆς μήτρας οἱ Στωικοὶ αἰτιῶνται τὰς ἀσυμφύλους εἰς ἑκάτερον τῶν πλησιαζόντων δυνάμεις τε καὶ ποιότητας· αἷς ὅταν συμβῇ χωρισθῆναι μὲν ἀπʼ ἀλλήλων συνελθεῖν δʼ ἑτέροις ὁμοφύλοις, συνεκράθη τὸ κατὰ φύσιν καὶ βρέφος τελεσιουργεῖται.

[¶13] 14. ALCMAEON says, that the barrenness of the male mules ariseth from the thinness of the genital sperm, that is, the seed is too chill; the female mules are barren, for their womb does not open its mouth (as he expresses it). Empedocles, the matrix of the mule is so small, so depressed, so narrow, so invertedly growing to the belly, that the sperm cannot be regularly cast into it, and if it could, there would be no capacity to receive it. Diocles concurs in this opinion with him; for, saith he, in our anatomical dissection of mules we have seen that their matrices are of such configurations; and it is possible that there may be the same reason why some women are barren.

> Greek: 14. Ἀλκμαίων τῶν ἡμιόνων τοὺς μὲν ἄρρενας ἀγόνους παρὰ τὴν λεπτότητα τῆς θορῆς ἢ ψυχρότητα τὰς δὲ θηλείας παρὰ τὸ μὴ ἀναχάσκειν τὰς μήτρας, οὕτω γὰρ αὐτὸς εἴρηκεν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς διὰ τὴν σμικρότητα καὶ ταπεινότητα καὶ στενότητα τῆς μήτρας, κατεστραμμένως προσπεφυκυίας τῇ γαστρί, μήτε τοῦ σπέρματος; εὐθυβολοῦντος εἰς αὐτὴν μήτε, εἰ καὶ φθάσειεν, αὐτῆς ἐκδεχομένης. Διοκλῆς δὲ μαρτυρεῖ αὐτῷ λέγων· ἐν ταῖς ἀνατομαῖς πολλάκις ἑωράκαμεν τοιαύτην μήτραν τῶν ἡμιόνων· καὶ ἐνδέχεσθαι διὰ τοιαύτας αἰτίας καὶ τὰς γυναῖκας εἶναι στείρας.

[¶14] 15. PLATO says, that the embryo is an animal; for, being contained in the mother’s womb, motion and aliment are imparted to it. The Stoics say that it is not an animal, but to be accounted part of the mother’s belly; like as we see the fruit of trees is esteemed part of the trees, until it be full ripe; then it falls and ceaseth to belong to the tree; and thus it is with the embryo. Empedocles, that the embryo is not an animal, yet whilst it remains in the belly it breathes. The first breath that it draws as an animal is when the infant is newly born; then the child having its moisture separated, the extraneous air making an entrance into the empty places, a respiration is caused in the infant by the empty vessels receiving of it. Diogenes, that infants are bred in the matrix inanimate, yet they have a natural heat; but presently, when the infant is cast into the open air, its heat draws air into the lungs, and so it becomes an animal. Herophilus acknowledgeth that infants have a natural, but not a respiratory motion, and that the nerves are the cause of that motion; that then they become animals, when being first born they suck in something of the air.

> Greek: 15. Πλάτων ζῷον τὸ ἔμβρυον καὶ γὰρ κινεῖσθαι ἐν τῇ γαστρὶ καὶ τρέφεσθαι καὶ αὔξεσθαι. οἱ Στωικοὶ μέρος εἶναι αὐτὸ τῆς γαστρί οὐ ζῷον· ὥσπερ γὰρ τοὺς καρποὺς μέρη τῶν φυτῶν ὄντας πεπαινομένους ἀπορρεῖν, οὕτω καὶ τὸ ἔμβρυον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς μὴ εἶναι μὲν ζῷον τὸ ἔμβρυον ἀλλʼ ἔμπνουν ὑπάρχειν ἐν τῇ γαστρί· πρώτην δʼ ἀναπνοὴν τοῦ ζῴου γίνεσθαι κατὰ τὴν ἀποκύησιν, τῆς μὲν ἐν τοῖς βρέφεσιν ὑγρασίας ἀποχώρησιν λαμβανούσης, πρὸς δὲ τὸ παρακενωθὲν ἐπεισόδου τοῦ ἐκτὸς ἀερώδους γινομένης εἰς τὰ παρανοιχθέντα τῶν ἀγγείων. Διογένης γεννᾶσθαι μὲν τὰ βρέφη ἄψυχα ἐν θερμασίᾳ δέ· ὅθεν τὸ ἔμφυτον θερμὸν τὸ ψυχρὸν εὐθέως, προχυθέντος τοῦ βρέφους, εἰς τὸν πνεύμονα ἐφέλκεσθαι. Ἡρόφιλος κίνησιν ἀπολείπει φυσικὴν τοῖς ἐμβρύοις οὐ πνευματικήν· τῆς δὲ κινήσεως αἴτια νεῦρα τότε δὲ ζῷα γίνεσθαι, ὅταν προχυθέντα προσλάβῃ τι τοῦ ἀέρος Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος τὸ ἔμβρυον ἐν τῇ μήτρᾳ διὰ τοῦ στόματος τρέφεσθαι·

[¶15] 16. DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus say, that the embryos in the womb receive their aliment by the mouth, for we perceive, as soon as ever the infant is born, it applies its mouth to the breast; in the wombs of women (our understanding concludes) there are little dugs, and the embryos have small mouths by which they receive their nutriment. The Stoics, that by the secundines and navel they partake of aliment, and therefore the midwife instantly after their birth binds the navel, and opens the infant’s mouth, that it may receive another sort of aliment. Alcmaeon, that they receive their nourishment from every part of the body; as a sponge sucks in water.

> Greek: 16. ὅθεν εὐθέως γεννηθὲν ἐπὶ τὸν μαστὸν φέρεσθαι τῷ στόματι· εἶναι γὰρ καὶ ἐν τῇ μήτρᾳ θηλάς τινας καὶ στόματα, διʼ ὧν τρέφεται. οἱ Στωικοὶ διὰ τοῦ. χορίου καὶ τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ ὅθεν τοῦτον εὐθέως ἀποδεῖν τὰς μαιουμένας καὶ ἀνευρύνειν τὸ στόμα, ἵνα ἑτέρα γένηται ἡ μελέτη τῆς τροφῆς. Ἀλκμαίων διʼ ὅλου τοῦ σώματος τρέφεσθαι ἀναλαμβάνειν γὰρ. αὐτῷ ὥσπερ σπογγιά τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς τροφῆς θρεπτικά.

[¶16] 17. THE Stoics believe that the greater part is formed at the same time. Aristotle, as the keel of a ship is first made, so the first part that is formed is the loins. Alcmaeon, the head, for that is the commanding and the principal part of the body. The physicians, the heart, in which are the veins and arteries. Some think the great toe is first formed; others affirm the navel.

> Greek: 17. οἱ Στωικοὶ ἅμα ὅλον γίνεσθαι. Ἀριστοτέλης πρῶτον τὴν ὀσφὺν ὡς τρόπιν νεώς. Ἀλκμαίων τὴν κεφαλήν, ἐν ἔστι τὸ ἡγεμονικόν οἱ ἰατροὶ τὴν καρδίαν, ἐν ᾗ αἱ φλέβες καὶ αἱ ἀρτηρίαι. οἱ δὲ τὸν μέγαν δάκτυλον τοῦ ποδός ἄλλοι δὲ τὸν ὀμφαλόν.

[¶17] 18. EMPEDOCLES says, that when the human race took first its original from the earth, the sun was so slow in its motion that then one day in its length was equal to ten months, as now they are; in process of time one day became as long as seven months are; and there is the reason that those infants which are born at the end of seven months or ten months are born alive, the course of nature so disposing that the infant shall be brought to maturity in one day after that night in which it is begotten. Timaeus says, that we count not ten months but nine, by reason that we reckon the first conception from the retention of the menstruas; and so it may generally pass for seven months when really there are not seven; for it sometimes happens that even after conception a woman is purged in some degree. Polybus, Diocles, and the Empirics acknowledge that the eighth month gives a vital birth to the infant, though the life of it is more faint and languid; many therefore we see born in that month die out of mere weakness. Though we see many born in that month arrive at the state of man, yet (they affirm) if children be born in that month, none are willing to rear them. Aristotle and Hippocrates, that if the womb is grown full in seven months, then the child falls from the mother and is born alive; but if it falls from her but is not properly nourished, the navel being weak on account of the heavy burden of the infant, then it doth not thrive; but if the infant continues nine months in the womb, and then breaks forth from the woman, it is entire and perfect. Polybus, that a hundred and eighty-two days and a half suffice for the bringing forth of a living child; that is, six months, in which space of time the sun moves from one tropic to the other; and this is called seven months, for the days which are overplus in the sixth are accounted to give the seventh month. Those children which are born in the eighth month cannot live, for, the infant then falling from the womb, the navel, which is the cause of nourishment, is thereby too much stretched; and is the reason that the infant languishes and hath an atrophy. The astrologers, that eight months are enemies to every birth, seven are friends and kind to it. The signs of the zodiac are then enemies, when they fall upon those stars which are lords of houses; whatever infant is then born will have a life short and unfortunate. Those signs of the zodiac which are malevolent and injurious to generation are those pairs of which the last is reckoned the eighth from the first, as the first and the eighth, the second and the ninth, etc.; so is the Ram unsociable with Scorpio, the Bull with Sagittarius, the Twins with the Goat, the Crab with Aquarius, the Lion with Pisces, the Virgin with the Ram. Upon this reason those infants that are born in the seventh or tenth months are like to live, but those in the eighth month will die.

> Greek: 18. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, ὅτε ἐγεννᾶτο τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος ἐκ τῆς γῆς, τοσαύτην γενέσθαι τῷ μήκει τοῦ χρόνου διὰ τὸ βραδυπορεῖν τὸν ἥλιον τὴν ἡμέραν, ὁπόση νῦν ἐστιν ἡ δεκάμηνος· προϊόντος δὲ τοῦ χρόνου, τοσαύτην γενέσθαι τὴν ἡμέραν, ὁπόση νῦν ἐστιν ἡ ἑπτάμηνος· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ τὰ δεκάμηνα γόνιμα καὶ τὰ ἑπτάμηνα τῆς φύσεως τοῦ κόσμου οὕτω μεμελετηκυίας, αὔξεσθαι ἐν μιᾷ ἡμέρᾳ ᾗ τίθεται νυκτὶ τὸ βρέφος. Τίμαιος δʼ οὐ δώδεκα μῆνάς φησιν, ἐννέα δὲ νομίζεσθαι παρὰ τὰς ἐπισχέσεις τῶν μηνιαίων τῆς πρώτης συλλήψεως· οὕτω καὶ τὰ ἑπτάμηνα νομίζεσθαι, οὐκ ὄντα ἑπτάμηνα ἔγνω τε γὰρ καὶ μετὰ τὴν σύλληψιν πόσαι καθάρσεις. Πόλυβος Διοκλῆς οἱ Ἐμπειρικοὶ καὶ τὸν ὄγδοον μῆνα ἴσασι γόνιμον, ἀτονώτερον δέ πως τῷ πολλάκις διὰ τὴν ἀτονίαν πολλοὺς φθείρεσθαι καθολικώτερον δὲ μηδένα βούλεσθαι τὰ ὀκτάμηνα τρέφειν, γεγενῆσθαι δὲ πολλοὺς ὀκταμηνιαίους ἄνδρας ὁ δʼ Ἀριστοτέλης καὶ Ἱπποκράτης φασίν, ἐὰν ἐκπληρωθῇ ἡ μήτρα ἐν τοῖς ἑπτὰ μησί, τότε προκύπτειν καὶ γεννᾶσθαι γόνιμα· ἐὰν δὲ προκύψῃ μὲν μὴ τρέφηται δέ, ἀσθενοῦντος τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ διὰ τὸ ἐπίπονον αὐτῷ γεγενῆσθαι τὸ κύημα,· τότε τὸ ἔμβρυον ἄτροφον εἶναι ἐὰν δὲ μείνῃ τοὺς ἐννέα μῆνας ἐν τῇ μήτρᾳ, προκῦψαν τότε ὁλόκληρόν ἐστι. Πόλυβος ἑκατὸν ὀγδοήκοντα δύο καὶ ἣμισυ ἡμέρας γίνεσθαι εἰς τὰ γόνιμα· εἶναι γὰρ ἑξάμηνον, ὅτι καὶ τὸν ἥλιον ἀπὸ τροπῶν ἐν τοσούτῳ χρόνῳ παραγίνεσθαι λέγεσθαι δʼ ἑπταμηνιαίους διὰ τὸ τὰς ἐλλειπούσας ἡμέρας τούτου τοῦ μηνὸς ἐν τῷ ἑπτὰ προσλαμβάνεσθαι· τὰ δʼ ὀκταμηνιαῖα μὴ ζῆν, ὅταν προκύψῃ μὲν τῆς μήτρας τὸ βρέφος, ἐπὶ πλέον δʼ ὁ ὀμφαλὸς βασανισθῇ· ἄτροφος γὰρ γίνεται ὡς τοῦ τρέφοντος αἴτιος. οἱ δὲ μαθηματικοὶ τοὺς ὀκτὼ μῆνας ἀσυνδέτους φασὶν εἶναι πάσης γενέσεως, τοὺς δʼ ἑπτὰ συνδετικούς· τὰ δʼ ἀσύνδετα ζῴδιά ἐστιν, ἐὰν τῶν οἰκοδεσποτούντων ἀστέρων τυγχάνῃ· ἐὰν γάρ τις τούτων τὴν ζωὴν καὶ τὸν βίον κληρώσηται, δυστυχεῖς καὶ ἀχρόνους σημαίνει ἀσύνδετα δʼ ἐστὶ ζῴδια ὀκτὼ ἀριθμούμενα, οἷον κριὸς πρὸς σκορπίον ἀσύνδετος, ταῦρος πρὸς τοξότην ἀσύνδετος, δίδυμοι πρὸς αἰγόκερων, καρκίνος πρὸς ὑδροχόον, λέων πρὸς ἰχθύας, παρθένος πρὸς κριόν· διὰ τοῦτο καὶ τὰ ἑπτάμηνα ὄντα καὶ δεκάμηνα γόνιμα εἶναι· τὰ δʼ ὀκτάμηνα διὰ τὸ ἀσύνδετον τοῦ κόσμου φθείρεσθαι.

[¶18] 19. THOSE philosophers who entertain the opinion that the world had an original do likewise assert that all animals are generated and corruptible. The followers of Epicurus, who gives an eternity to the world, affirm the generation of animals ariseth from the various permutation of parts mutually among themselves, for they are parts of this world. With them Anaxagoras and Euripides concur:
For nothing dies,
But different changes give their various forms. Anaximander’s opinion is, that the first animals were generated in moisture, and were enclosed in bark on which thorns grew; but in process of time they came upon dry land, and this thorny bark with which they were covered being broken, they lived for a short space of time. Empedocles says, that the first generation of animals and plants was by no means completed, for the parts were disjoined and would not admit of a union; the second preparation for their being generated was when their parts were united and appeared in the form of images; the third preparation for generation was when their parts mutually amongst themselves gave a being to one another; the fourth, when there was no longer a mixture of similar elements (like earth and water), but a union of animals among themselves,—in some the nourishment being made dense, in others female beauty provoking a lust of spermatic motion. All sorts of animals are discriminated by their proper temperament and constitution; some are carried by a proper appetite and inclination to water; some, which partake of a more fiery quality, to breathe in the air; those that are heavier incline to the earth; but those animals whose parts are of a just and equal temperament are fitted equally for all places.

> Greek: 19. καθʼ οὓς μὲν γενητὸς ὁ κόσμος, γενητὰ τὰ ζῷα καὶ φθαρτὰ εἰσιν. οἱ περὶ Ἐπίκουρον, καθʼ οὓς ἀγένητος, ἐκ μεταβολῆς τῆς ἀλλήλων γεννᾶσθαι τὰ ζῷα· μέρη γὰρ εἶναι τοῦ κόσμου ταῦτα. ὡς καὶ Ἀναξαγόρας καὶ Εὐριπίδης
θνῄσκει δʼ οὐδὲν τῶν γιγνομένων,
διακρινόμενον δʼ ἄλλο πρὸς ἄλλο
μορφὰς ἑτέρας ἀπέδειξεν. Ἀναξίμανδρος ἐν ὑγρῷ γεννηθῆναι τὰ πρῶτα ζῷα, φλοιοῖς· περιεχόμενα ἀκανθώδεσι προβαινούσης δὲ τῆς ἡλικίας ἀποβαίνειν ἐπὶ τὸ ξηρότερον καὶ περιρρηγνυμένου τοῦ φλοιοῦ ἐπʼ ὀλίγον χρόνον μεταβιῶναι. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὰς πρώτας γενέσεις τῶν ζῷωνʼκαὶ φυτῶν μηδαμῶς ὁλοκλήρους γενέσθαι, ἀσυμφυέσι δὲ τοῖς μορίοις διεζευγμένας, τὰς δὲ δευτέρας συμφυομένων τῶν μερῶν εἰδωλοφανεῖς, τὰς δὲ τρίτας τῶν ἀλληλοφυῶν τὰς δὲ τετάρτας οὐκέτι ἐκ τῶν ὁμοίων οἷον ἐκ γῆς καὶ ὕδατος, ἀλλὰ διʼ ἀλλήλων ἤδη, τοῖς μὲν πυκνωθείσης τῆς τροφῆς, τοῖς δὲ. καὶ τῆς εὐμορφίας τῶν γυναικῶν ἐπερεθισμὸν τοῦ σπερματικοῦ κινήματος ἐμποιησάσης. τῶν δὲ ζῴων πάντων τὰ γένη διακριθῆναι διὰ τὰς ποιὰς κράσεις τὰ μὲν οἰκειότερα εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ τὴν ὁρμὴν ἔχειν, τὰ δʼ εἰς ἀέρα ἀναπνεῖν, ὅσʼ ἂν πυρῶδες ἔχῃ τὸ πλέον, τὰ δὲ βαρύτερα ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν, τὰ δʼ ἰσόμοιρα τῇ κράσει πᾶσι τοῖς θώραξι πεφωνηκέναι.

[¶19] 20. THERE is a certain treatise of Aristotle, in which animals are distributed into four kinds, terrestrial, aqueous, fowl, and heavenly; and he calls the stars and the world also animals, yea, and God himself he defines to be an animal endowed with reason and immortal. Democritus and Epicurus esteem all animals rational which have their residence in the heavens. Anaxagoras says that animals have only that reason which is operative, but not that which is passive, which is justly styled the interpreter of the mind, and is like the mind itself. Pythagoras and Plato, that the souls of all those who are styled brutes are rational; but by the evil constitution of their bodies, and because they have a want of a discoursive faculty, they do not act rationally. This is manifested in apes and dogs, which have voice but not speech. Diogenes, that this sort of animals are partakers of intelligence and air, but by reason of the density in some parts of them, and by the superfluity of moisture in others, they enjoy neither understanding nor sense; but they are affected as madmen are, the commanding rational part being defectuous and impeached.

> Greek: 20. ἔστι πραγματεία Ἀριστοτέλους, ἐν ᾗ τέσσαρα γένη ζῴων φησί, χερσαῖα ἔνυδρα πτηνὰ οὐράνια καὶ γὰρ τὰ ἄστρα·. ζῷα λέγεσθαι καὶ τὸν κόσμον καὶ τῶν γηΐνων ζῷον λογικὸν ἀθάνατον. Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος τὰ οὐράνια Ἀναξαγόρας πάντα τὰ ζῷα λόγον ἔχειν τὸν ἐνεργητικόν, τὸν δʼ οἱονεὶ νοῦν μὴ ἔχειν τὸν παθητικόν τὸν, λεγόμενον τοῦ νοῦ ἑρμηνέα. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων λογικὰς μὲν εἶναι καὶ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων καλουμένων τὰς ψυχάς, οὐ μὴν λογικῶς ἐνεργούσας παρὰ τὴν δυσκρασίαν τῶν σωμάτων καὶ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν τὸ φραστικόν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν πιθήκων καὶ τῶν κυνῶν ωοοῦσι μὲν γὰρ οὗτοι οὐ φράζουσι δέ. Διογένης μετέχειν μὲν αὐτὰ τοῦ νοητικοῦ μέρος·, διὰ δὲ τὸ τὰ μὲν πυκνότητι τὰ δὲ πλεονασμῷ τῆς ὑγρασίας μήτε διανοεῖσθαι μήτʼ αἰσθάνεσθαι, προσφερῶς αὐτὰ διακεῖσθαι τοῖς μεμηνόσι, παραπεπαικότος τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ.

[¶20] 21. EMPEDOCLES believes, that the joints of men begin to be formed from the thirty-sixth day, and their shape is completed in the nine and fortieth. Asclepiades, that male embryos, by reason of a greater natural heat, have their joints begun to be formed in the twenty-sixth day,— many even sooner,—and that they are completed in all their parts on the fiftieth day; the parts of the females are articulated in two months, but by the defect of heat are not consummated till the fourth; but the members of brutes are completed at various times, according to the commixture of the elements of which they consist.

> Greek: 21. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἄρχεσθαι τῆς διαρθρώσεως ἀπὸ ἕκτης καὶ τριακοστῆς, τελειοῦσθαι δὲ τοῖς μορίοις ἀπὸ πεντηκοστῆς μιᾶς δεούσης. Ἀσκληπιάδης; ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν ἀρρένων διὰ τὸ θερμότερα εἶναι τὴν διάρθρωσιν γίνεσθαι ἀπὸ ἕκτης καὶ εἰκοστῆς· πολλάκις δὲ καὶ ἐνδοτέρω πληροῦσθαι δʼ ἐντὸς τῆς πεντηκοστῆς τοῖς μορίοις· ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν θηλυκῶν ἐν διμήνῳ διαρθροῦσθαι ἐν τετραμήνῳ δὲ τελειοῦσθαι διὰ ἐνδεῖν τοῦ θερμοῦ· τὰ· δὲ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων ὁλοτελῆ παρὰ τὰς συγκράσεις τῶν στοιχείων.

[¶21] 22. EMPEDOCLES says, that the fleshy parts of us are constituted by the contemperation of the four elements in us; earth and fire mixed with a double proportion of water make the nerves; but when it happens that the nerves are refrigerated where they meet the air, then the nails are made; the bones are produced by two parts of water and the same of air, with four parts of fire and the same of earth, duly mixed together; sweat and tears flow from the liquefaction of these bodies of ours.

> Greek: 22. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὰς μὲν σάρκας γεννᾶσθαι ἐκ τῶν ἴσων τῇ κράσει τεττάρων στοιχείων τὰ δὲ νεῦρα πυρὸς καὶ γῆς, ὕδατι διπλασίονι μιχθέντων τοὺς δʼ ὄνυχας τοῖς ζῴοις γεννᾶσθαι, τῶν νεύρων καθὸ τῷ ἀέρι συνέτυχε περιψυχθέντων· ὀστᾶ δὲ δυεῖν μὲν ὕδατος καὶ τῆς ἔσω γῆς, τεττάρων δὲ πυρὸς καὶ γῆς τοσούτων συγκραθέντων μερῶν ἱδρῶτα δὲ καὶ δάκρυον γίνεσθαι τοῦ σωματικοῦ οὕτως ….

[¶22] 23. ALCMAEON says, that sleep is caused when the blood retreats to the concourse of the veins, but when the blood diffuses itself, then we awake; and when there is a total retirement of the blood, then men die. Empedocles, that a moderate cooling of the blood causeth sleep, but a total remotion of heat from blood causeth death. Diogenes, that when all the blood is so diffused as that it fills all the veins, and forces the air contained in them to the back and to the belly that is below it, the breast being thereby more heated, thence sleep arises; but if every thing that is airy in the breast forsakes the veins, then death succeeds. Plato and the Stoics, that sleep ariseth from the relaxation of the sensitive spirit, it not receiving such total remission as if it fell to the earth, but so that that spirit is carried about the intestine parts of the eyebrows, in which the principal part has its residence; but when there is a total remission of the sensitive spirit, then death ensues.

> Greek: 23. Ἡράκλειτος καὶ οἱ Στωικοὶ ἄρχεσθαι τοὺς ἀνθρώπους τῆς τελειότητος περὶ τὴν δευτέραν ἑβδομάδα, περὶ ἣν ὁ σπερματικὸς κινεῖται ὀρρός· τὰ γὰρ δένδρα ἄρχεται τότε τελειότητος, ὅταν ἄρχηται γεννᾶν τὰ, σπέρματα, ἀτελῆ δʼ ἐστὶν ἄγονα καὶ ἄκαρπα ὄντα· τέλειος οὖν τότε ἄνθρωπος. περὶ δὲ τὴν δευτέραν ἑβδομάδα ἔννοια γίνεται καλοῦ τε καὶ κακοῦ καὶ τῆς διδασκαλίας αὐτῶν.

[¶23] 24. HERACLITUS and the Stoics say, that men begin their completeness when the second septenary of years begins, about which time the seminal serum is emitted. Trees first begin their perfection when they give their seeds; till then they are immature, imperfect, and unfruitful. After the same manner a man is completed in the second septenary of years, and is capable of learning what is good and evil, and of discipline therein. ARISTOTLE’S opinion is, that both the soul and body sleep; and this proceeds from the moisture in the breast, which doth steam and arise in the manner of a vapor into the head, and from the aliment in the stomach, whose natural heat is cooled in the heart. Death is the perfect refrigeration of all heat in the body; but death is only of the body, and not of the soul, for the soul is immortal. Anaxagoras thinks, that sleep makes the operations of the body to cease; it is a corporeal passion and affects not the soul. Death is the separation of the soul from the body. Leucippus, that sleep is only of the body; but when the smaller particles cause immoderate evaporation from the soul’s heat, this makes death; but these affections of death and sleep are of the body, not of the soul. Empedocles, that death is nothing else but separation of those fiery parts by which man is composed, and according to this sentiment both body and soul die; but sleep is only a smaller separation of the fiery qualities.

> Greek: 24. Ἀλκμαίων ἀναχωρήσει τοῦ αἵματος εἰς τὰς αἱμόρρους φλέβας ὕπνον γίνεσθαί φησι, τὴν δʼ ἐξέγερσιν διαχύσει, τῇ δὲ παντελεῖ ἀναχωρήσει θάνατον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὸν μὲν ὕπνον καταψύξει τοῦ ἐν τῷ αἵματι θερμοῦ συμμέτρῳ γίνεσθαι, τῆ δὲ παντελεῖ θάνατον. Διογένης, εἰ ἐπὶ πᾶν τὸ αἷμα διαχεόμενον πληρώσει μὲν τὰς φλέβας τὸν δʼ ἐν αὐταῖς περιεχόμενον ἀέρα ὤσει εἰς τὰ στέρνα καὶ τὴν ὑποκειμένην γαστέρα, ὕπνον γεγενῆσθαι καὶ θερμότερον ὑπάρχειν τὸν θώρακα ἐὰν δʼ ἅπαν τὸ ἀερῶδες ἐκ τῶν φλεβῶν ἐκλίπῃ, θάνατον συντυγχάνειν. Πλάτων οἱ Στωικοὶ τὸν μὲν ὕπνον γίνεσθαι ἀνέσει τοῦ αἰσθητικοῦ πνεύματος οὐ κατʼ ἀναχαλασμόν, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, φερομένου δʼ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν μεσόφρυον· ὅταν δὲ παντελὴς γένηται ἡ ἄνεσις τοῦ αἰσθητικοῦ πνεύματος, τότε γεγενῆσθαι θάνατον. Ἀριστοτέλης κοινὸν μὲν τὸν ὕπνον σώματος καὶ ψυχῆς· αἴτιον δʼ αὐτῷ τὸ ἀναθυμιαθὲν ὑγρὸν· ἀπὸ τοῦ θώρακος εἰς τοὺς περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν τόπους ἐκ τῆς ὑποκειμένης τροφῆς ἢ τὸ ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ περιψυχθὲν θερμόν· τὸν δὲ θάνατον εἶναι παντελῆ κατάψυξιν· θάνατον δʼ εἶναι μόνου τοῦ σώματος οὐ ψυχῆς ταύτης γὰρ οὐχ ὑπάρχει θάνατος. Ἀναξαγόρας κατὰ κόπον τῆς σωματικῆς ἐνεργείας γίνεσθαι τὸν ὕπνον σωματικὸν γὰρ εἶναι τὸ πάθος οὐ ψυχικόν· εἶναι δὲ καὶ ψυχῆς θάνατον τὸν διαχωρισμόν. Λεύκιππος οὐ μόνον σώματος γίνεσθαι, ἀλλὰ κράσει τοῦ λεπτομεροῦς πλείονι τῆς ἐκκράσεως τοῦ ψυχικοῦ θερμοῦ, τὸν πλεονασμὸν αἴτιον θανάτου· ταῦτα δʼ εἶναι πάθη σώματος οὐ ψυχῆς. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὸν θάνατον γεγενῆσθαι διαχωρισμὸν τοῦ πυρώδους καὶ γεώδους, ἐξ ὧν ἡ σύγκρισις τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ συνεστάθη· ὥστε κατὰ τοῦτο κοινὸν εἶναι τὸν θάνατον σώματος καὶ ψυχῆς· ὕπνον δὲ γίνεσθαι διαχωρισμὸν τοῦ πυρώδους Πλάτων Ἐμπεδοκλῆς καὶ τὰ φυτὰ ἔμψυχα ζῷα·

[¶24] 26. PLATO and Empedocles believe, that plants are animals, and are informed with a soul; of this there are clear arguments, for they have tossing and shaking, and their branches are extended; when the woodmen bend them they yield, but they return to their former straightness and strength again when they are let loose, and even draw up weights that are laid upon them. Aristotle doth grant that they live, but not that they are animals; for animals are affected with appetite, sense, and reason. The Stoics and Epicureans deny that they are informed with a soul; by reason that all sorts of animals have either sense, appetite, or reason; but plants move fortuitously, and not by means of any soul. Empedocles, that the first of all animals were trees, and they sprang from the earth before the sun in its glory enriched the world, and before day and night were distinguished; but by the harmony which is in their constitution they partake of a masculine and feminine nature; and they increase by that heat which is exalted out of the earth, so that they are parts belonging to it, as embryos in the womb are parts of the womb. Fruits in plants are excrescences proceeding from water and fire; but the plants which have a deficiency of water, when this is dried up by the heat of summer, lose their leaves; whereas they that have plenty thereof keep their leaves on still, as the olive, laurel, and palm. The differences of their moisture and juice arise from the difference of particles and various other causes, and they are discriminated by the various particles that feed them. And this is apparent in vines; for the excellence of wine flows not from the difference in the vines, but from the soil from whence they receive their nutriment.

> Greek: 26. φανερὸν δὲ καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ σαλεύεσθαι καὶ ἐντετα μένους ἔχειν τοὺς κλάδους καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἐπαναγωγαῖς εἴκειν καὶ πάλιν σφοδρῶς ἀναχαλᾶσθαι, ὥστε καὶ συνανέλκειν βάρη. Ἀριστοτέλης ἔμψυχα μὲν οὐ μὴν ζῷα τὰ γὰρ ζῷα ὁρμητικὰ εἶναι καὶ αἰσθητικά, ἔνια δὲ καὶ λογικά. οἱ Στωικοὶ δὲ καὶ οἱ Ἐπικούρειοι οὐκ ἔμψυχα τινὰ γὰρ ψυχῆς ὁρμητικῆς εἶναι καὶ ἐπιθυμητικῆς, τινὰ δὲ καὶ λογικῆς· τὰ δὲ φυτὰ αὐτομάτως πως κεκινῆσθαι οὐ διὰ ψυχῆς. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς πρῶτα τὰ δένδρα τῶν ζῴων ἐκ γῆς ἀναδῦναί φησι, πρὶν τὸν ἥλιον περιαπλωθῆναι καὶ πρὶν ἡμέραν καὶ νύκτα διακριθῆναι διὰ δὲ συμμετρίαν τῆς κράσεως τὸν τοῦ ἄρρενος καὶ τοῦ θήλεος περιέχειν λόγον· αὔξεσθαι δʼ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐν τῇ γῇ θερμοῦ διαιρουμένου, ὥστε γῆς εἶναι μέρη, καθάπερ καὶ τὰ ἔμβρυα τὰ ἐν τῇ γαστρὶ τῆς μήτρας μέρη· τοὺς δὲ καρποὺς περιττώματα εἶναι τοῦ ἐν τοῖς φυτοῖς ὕδατος καὶ πυρός· καὶ τὰ μὲν ἐλλιπὲς ἔχοντα τὸ ὑγρόν, ἐξικμαζομένου αὐτοῦ τῷ θέρει, φυλλορροεῖν, τὰ δὲ πλεῖον παραμένειν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῆς δάφνης καὶ τῆς ἐλαίας καὶ τοῦ φοίνικος τὰς δὲ διαφορὰς τῶν χυμῶν παραλλαγὰς τῆς πολυμερείας καὶ τῶν φυτῶν γίνεσθαι, διαφόρους ἑχόντων τὰς ἀπὸ τοῦ τρέφοντος ὁμοιομερείας, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀμπέλων· οὐ γὰρ αἱ διαφοραὶ τούτων χρηστικὸν οἶνον ποιοῦσιν, ἀλλʼ αἱ τοῦ τρέφοντος ἐδάφους.

[¶25] 27. EMPEDOCLES believes, that animals are nourished by the remaining in them of that which is proper to their own nature; they are augmented by the application of heat; and the subtraction of either of these makes them to languish and decay. The stature of men in this present age, if compared with the magnitude of those men which were first produced, is no other than a mere infancy. EMPEDOCLES says that the want of those elements which compose animals gives to them appetite, and pleasures spring from humidity. As to the motions of dangers and such like things, as perturbations, etc....

> Greek: 27. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τρέφεσθαι μὲν τὰ ζῷα διὰ τὴν ὑπόστασιν τοῦ οἰκείου, αὔξεσθαι δὲ διὰ τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ θερμοῦ, μειοῦσθαι δὲ καὶ φθίνειν διὰ τὴν ἔκλειψιν ἑκατέρων· τοὺς δὲ νῦν ἀνθρώπους τοῖς πρώτοις συμβαλλομένους βρεφῶν ἐπέχειν τάξιν. Ἀναξαγόρας τρέφεσθαι μὲν Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὰς μὲν ὀρέξεις γίνεσθαι τοῖς ζῴοις κατὰ τὰς ἐλλείψεις τῶν ἀποτελούντων ἕκαστον στοιχείων, τὰς δʼ ἡδονὰς ἐξ ὑγροῦ καὶ τὰς τῶν κινδύνων καὶ ὁμοίων κινήσεις, τὰς δʼ ὀχλήσεις καὶ τὰς

[¶26] 29. ERASISTRATUS gives this definition of a fever: A fever is a quick motion of blood, not produced by our consent, which enters into the vessels proper unto the vital spirits. This we see in the sea; it is in a serene calm when nothing disturbs it, but is in motion when a violent preternatural wind blows upon it, and then it rageth and is circled with waves. After this manner it is in the body of man; when the blood is in a nimble agitation, then it falls upon those vessels in which the spirits are, and there being in an extraordinary heat, it fires the whole body. The opinion that a fever is an appendix to a preceding affection pleaseth him. Diodes proceeds after this manner: Those things which are internal and latent are manifested by those which externally break forth and appear; and it is clear to us that a fever is annexed to certain outward affections, for example, to wounds, inflaming tumors, inguinary abscesses.

> Greek: 29. Ἐρασίστρατος ὁρίζεται τὸν πυρετὸν οὕτως· πυρετὸς ἐστι κίνημα αἵματος παρεμπεπτωκότος εἰς τὰ τοῦ πνεύματος ἀγγεῖα ἀπροαιρέτως γινόμενον· καθάπερ γὰρ ἐπὶ τῆς θαλάττης, ὅταν μηδὲν αὐτὴν κινῇ, ἠρεμεῖ, ἀνέμου δʼ ἐμπνέοντος βιαίου παρὰ φύσιν, τότε ἐξ ὅλης κυκλεῖται, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τῷ σώματι ὅταν κινηθῇ τὸ αἷμα, τότε ἐμπίπτει μὲν εἰς τὰ ἀγγεῖα τῶν πνευμάτων, πυρούμενον δὲ θερμαίνει τὸ ὅλον σῶμα, ἀρέσκει δʼ αὐτῷ καὶ ἐπιγέννημα εἶναι ὁ πυρετὸς …. Διοκλῆς δέ φησιν· ὄψις ἀδήλων τὰ φαινόμενα ἐστι δέ, οἷς φαινομένοις ὁρᾶται ὁ πυρετὸς ἐπιγενόμενος, τραύματα καὶ φλεγμοναὶ καὶ βουβῶνες.

[¶27] 30. ALCMAEON says that the preserver of health is an equal proportion of the qualities of heat, moisture, cold, dryness, bitterness, sweetness, and the other qualities; on the contrary, the prevailing empire of one above the rest is the cause of diseases and author of destruction. The efficient cause of disease is the excess of heat or cold, the material cause is superabundance or defect, the place is the blood or brain. But health is the harmonious commixture of the elements. Diodes, that sickness for the most part proceeds from the irregular disposition of the elements in the body, for that makes an ill habit or constitution of it. Erasistratus, that sickness is caused by the excess of food, indigestion, and corruptions; on the contrary, health is the moderation of the diet, and the taking that which is convenient and sufficient for us. It is the unanimous opinion of the Stoics that the want of heat brings old age, for (they say) those persons in whom heat more abounds live the longer. Asclepiades, that the Ethiopians soon grow old, and at thirty years of age are ancient men, their bodies being excessively heated and scorched by the sun; in Britain persons live a hundred and twenty years, on account of the coldness of the country, and because the people contain the fiery element within their bodies; for the bodies of the Ethiopians are more fine and thin, because they are relaxed by the sun’s heat, while they who live in northern countries have a contrary state of their bodies, for they are condensed and robust, and by consequence live the longer.

> Greek: 30. Ἀλκμαίων τῆς μὲν ὑγείας εἶναι συνεκτικὴν τὴν ἰσονομίαν τῶν δυνάμεων, ὑγροῦ ξηροῦ ψυχροῦ θερμοῦ πικροῦ γλυκέος καὶ τῶν λοιπῶν· τὴν δʼ ἐν αὐτοῖς μοναρχίαν νόσου ποιητικήν· φθοροποιὸν γὰρ ἑκατέρου μοναρχία· καὶ νόσων αἰτία, ὡς μὲν ὑφʼ ἧς, ὑπερβολῇ θερμότητος ἢ ψυχρότητος· ὡς δʼ ἐξ ἧς, διὰ πλῆθος ἢ ἔνδειαν· ὡς δʼ ἐν οἷς, ἢ αἷμα ἐνδέον ἢ ἐγκέφαλος· τὴν δὲ ὑγείαν τὴν σύμμετρον τῶν ποιῶν κρᾶσιν. Διοκλῆς πλείστας τῶν νόσων διʼ ἀνωμαλίαν τῶν ἐν τῷ σώματι στοιχείων καὶ τοῦ καταστήματος Ἐρασίστρατος τὰς νόσους διὰ πλῆθος τροφῆς καὶ διʼ ἀπεψίας καὶ φθοράν, τὴν δʼ εὐταξίαν καὶ αὐτάρκειαν εἶναι ὑγείαν. οἱ Στωικοὶ συμφώνως τὸ γῆρας γεγενῆσθαι διὰ τὴν τοῦ θερμοῦ ἔλλειψιν οἱ γὰρ αὐτοὶ πλέον ἔχοντες τὸ θερμὸν ἐπὶ πλεῖον γηρῶσιν. Ἀσκληπιάδης Αἰθίοπάς φησι ταχέως γηράσκειν ἐτῶν τριάκοντα διὰ τὸ ὑπερθερμαίνεσθαι τὰ σώματα ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου διαφλεχθέντας· ἐν Βρεττανίᾳ ἑκατὸν εἴκοσιν ἐτῶν γηρᾶν διὰ τὸ κατεψῦχθαι μὲν τοὺς τόπους, ἐν ἑαυτοῖς δὲ στέγειν τὸ πυρῶδες· τὰ μὲν γὰρ τῶν Αἰθιόπων σώματὰ εἰσιν ἀραιότερα διὰ τὸ ἀναχαλᾶσθαι ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου, τὰ δʼ ὑπὸ τῶν ἄρκτων πυκνά, διὰ τοῦτο οὖν καὶ πολυχρόνια.