1. THALES conjectures that the Etesian or anniversary northern winds blowing strongly against Egypt heighten the swelling of the Nile, the mouth of that river being obstructed by the force of the sea rushing into it. Euthymenes the Massilian concludes that the Nile is filled by the ocean and that sea which is outward from it, this being naturally sweet. Anaxagoras, that the snow in Ethiopia which is frozen in winter is melted in summer, and this makes the inundation. Democritus, that the snows which are in the northern climates when the sun enters the summer solstice are dissolved and diffused; from those vapors clouds are compacted, and these are forcibly driven by the Etesian winds into the southern parts and into Egypt, from whence violent showers are poured; and by this means the fens of Egypt are filled with water, and the river Nile hath its inundation. Herodotus the historian, that the waters of the Nile receive from their fountain an equal portion of water in winter and in summer; but in winter the water appears less, because the sun, making its approach nearer to Egypt, draws up the rivers of that country into exhalations. Ephorus the historiographer, that in summer all Egypt seems to be melted and sweats itself into water, to which the thin and sandy soils of Arabia and Lybia contribute. Endoxus relates that the Egyptian priests affirm that, when it is summer to us who dwell under the northern tropic, it is winter with them that inhabit under the southern tropic; by this means there is a various contrariety and opposition of the seasons in the year, which cause such showers to fall as make the water to overflow the banks of the Nile and diffuse itself throughout all Egypt.
1. Θαλῆς τοὺς ἐτησίας ἀνέμους οἴεται πνέοντας τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ ἀντιπροσώπους ἐπαίρειν τοῦ Νείλου τὸν ὄγκον διὰ τὸ τὰς ἐκροὰς αὐτοῦ τῇ παροιδήσει τοῦ ἀντιπαρήκοντος πελάγους ἀνακόπτεσθαι. Εὐθυμένης ὁ Μασσαλιώτης ἐκ τοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ καὶ τῆς ἔξω θαλάσσης γλυκείας κατʼ αὐτὸν οὔσης νομίζει πληροῦσθαι τὸν ποταμόν. Ἀναξαγόρας ἐκ τῆς. χιόνος τῆς ἐν τῇ Αἰθιοπίᾳ, τηκομένης μὲν τῷ θέρει ψυχομένης δὲ τῷ χειμῶνι. Δημόκριτος, τῆς χιόνος τῆς ἐν τοῖς πρὸς ἄρκτον μέρεσιν ὑπὸ θερινὰς τροπὰς ἀναλυομένης τε καὶ διαχεομένης, νέφη μὲν ἐκ τῶν ἀτμῶν πιλοῦσθαι τούτων δʼ ἀπελαυνομένων πρὸς μεσημβρίαν καὶ τὴν Αἴγυπτον· ὑπὸ τῶν ἐτησίων ἀνέμων, ἀποτελεῖσθαι ῥαγδαίους ὄμβρους, ὑφʼ ὧν ἀναπίμπλασθαι τάς τε λίμνας καὶ τὸν Νεῖλον ποταμόν. Ἡρόδοτος ὁ συγγραφεὺς ἴσον μὲν ἐκ τῶν πηγῶν φέρεσθαι χειμῶνος καὶ θέρους, φαίνεσθαι δʼ ἐλάττονα τοῦ χειμῶνος διὰ τὸ ἐν τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ πλησίον ἰόντα τὸν ἥλιον τῆς Αἰγύπτου ἐξατμίζειν τὰ νάματα. Ἔφορος ὁ ἱστοριογράφος κατὰ θέρος φησὶν ἀναχαλᾶσθαι τὴν ὅλην Αἴγυπτον καὶ οἱονεὶ ἐξιδροῦν τὸ πολὺ νᾶμα συνδίδωσι δʼ αὐτῇ καὶ ἡ Ἀραβία καὶ ἡ Λιβύη παρὰ τὸ ἀραιὸν καὶ ὑπόψαμμον. Εὔδοξος τοὺς ἱερεῖς φησι λέγειν τὰ ὄμβρια τῶν ὑδάτων κατὰ τὴν ἀντιπερίστασιν τῶν ὡρῶν ὅταν γὰρ ἡμῖν θέρος τοῖς ὑπὸ τὸν θερινὸν τροπικὸν οἰκοῦσιν, τότε τοῖς ὑπὸ τὸν χειμερινὸν τροπικὸν ἀντοίκοις χειμών ἐστιν, ἐξ ὧν τὸ πλημμῦρον ὕδωρ καταρρήγνυται.
2. THALES first pronounced that the soul is that being which is in a perpetual motion, or that whose motion proceeds from itself. Pythagoras, that it is a number moving itself; he takes a number to be the same thing with a mind. Plato, that it is an intellectual substance moving itself, and that motion is in a numerical harmony. Aristotle, that it is the first actuality (ἐντελέχεια) of a natural organical body which has life potentially; and this actuality must be understood to be the same thing with energy or operation. Dicaearchus, that it is the harmony of the four elements. Asclepiades the physician, that it is the concurrent exercitation of the senses.
2. Θαλῆς ἀπεφήνατο πρῶτος τὴν ψυχὴν φύσιν ἀεικίνητον ἢ αὐτοκίνητον. Πυθαγόρας ἀριθμὸν ἑαυτὸν κινοῦντα, τὸν δʼ ἀριθμὸν ἀντὶ τοῦ νοῦ παραλαμβάνει. Πλάτων οὐσίαν νοητήν, ἐξ ἑαυτῆς κινητὴν, κατʼ ἀριθμὸν ἐναρμόνιον κινουμένην. Ἀριστοτέλης ἐντελέχειαν πρώτην σώματος φυσικοῦ, ὀργανικοῦ, δυνάμει ζωὴν ἔχοντος· τὴν δʼ ἐντελέχειαν ἀκουστέον ἀντὶ τῆς ἐνεργείας. Δικαίαρχος; ἁρμονίαν τῶν τεσσάρων στοιχείων. Ἀσκληπιάδης ὁ ἰατρὸς συγγυμνασίαν τῶν αἰσθήσεων.
3. ALL those that have been named by me do affirm that the soul itself is incorporeal, and by its own nature is in a perpetual motion, and in its own essence is an intelligent substance, and the actuality of a natural organical body which has life. The followers of Anaxagoras, that it is airy and a body. The Stoics, that it is a hot breath. Democritus, that it is a fiery composition of things which are perceptible by reason, the same having their forms spherical and without an inflaming faculty; and it is a body. Epicurus, that it is constituted of four qualities, of a fiery quality, of an aerial quality, a pneumatical, and of a fourth quality which hath no name, but it contains the virtue of the sense. Heraclitus, that the soul of the world is the exhalation which proceeds from the moist parts of it; but the soul of animals, arising from exhalations that are exterior and from those that are within them, is homogeneous to it.
3. οὗτοι πάντες οἱ προτεταγμένοι ἀσώματον τὴν ψυχὴν ὑποτίθενται, φύσιν λέγοντες αὐτοκίνητον καὶ οὐσίαν νοητὴν καὶ τοῦ φυσικοῦ ὀργανικοῦ ζωὴν ἔχοντος ἐντελέχειαν. οἱ δʼ ἀπʼ Ἀναξαγόρου ἀεροειδῆ ἔλεγόν τε καὶ σῶμα. οἱ Στωικοὶ πνεῦμα θερμόν. Δημόκριτος πυρῶδες σύγκριμα ἐκ τῶν λόγῳ θεωρητῶν, σφαιρικὰς μὲν ἐχόντων τὰς ἰδέας πυρίνην δὲ τὴν δύναμιν, ὅπερ· σῶμα εἶναι. Ἐπίκουρος κρᾶμα ἐκ τεσσάρων, ἐκ ποιοῦ πυρώδους, ἐκ ποιοῦ ἀερώδους, ἐκ ποιοῦ πνευματικοῦ· ἐκ τετάρτου τινὸς ἀκατονομάστου, ὃ ἦν αὐτῷ αἰσθητικόν. Ἡράκλειτος τὴν μὲν τοῦ κόσμου ψυχὴν ἀναθυμίασιν ἐκ τῶν ἐν αὐτῷ ὑγρῶν, τὴν δʼ ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἀπὸ τῆς ἐκτὸς καὶ τῆς ἐν αὐτοῖς ἀναθυμιάσεως; ὁμογενῆ.
4. PLATO and Pythagoras, according to their former account distribute the soul into two parts, the rational and irrational. By a more accurate and strict account the soul is branched into three parts; they divide the unreasonable part into the concupiscible and the irascible. The Stoics say the soul is constituted of eight parts; five of which are the senses, hearing, seeing, tasting, touching, smelling, the sixth is the faculty of speaking, the seventh of generating, the eighth of commanding; this is the principal of all, by which all the other are guided and ordered in their proper organs, as we see the arms of a polypus aptly disposed. Democritus and Epicurus divide the soul into two parts, the rational, which hath its residence in the breast, and the irrational, which is diffused through the whole structure of the body. Democritus, that the quality of the soul is communicated to every thing, yea, to the dead corpses; for they are partakers of heat and some sense, when the most of both is expired out of them.
4. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων κατὰ μὲν τὸν ἀνωτάτω λόγον διμερῆ τὴν ψυχήν, τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει λογικὸν τὸ δʼ ἄλογον κατὰ δὲ τὸ προσεχὲς καὶ ἀκριβὲς τριμερῆ, τὸ γὰρ ἄλογον διαιροῦσιν εἴς τε τὸ θυμικὸν καὶ τὸ ἐπιθυμητικόν. οἱ Στωικοὶ ἐξ ὀκτὼ μερῶν φασι συνεστάναι, πέντε μὲν τῶν αἰσθητικῶν, ὁρατικοῦ ἀκουστικοῦ ὀσφρητικοῦ γευστικοῦ ἁπτικοῦ, ἕκτου δὲ φωνητικοῦ, ἑβδόμου δὲ σπερματικοῦ, ὀγδόου δʼ αὐτοῦ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ, ἀφʼ οὗ ταῦτα πάντα ἐπιτέταται διὰ τῶν οἰκείων ὀργάνων προσφερῶς ταῖς τοῦ πολύποδος πλεκτάναις. Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος διμερῆ τὴν ψυχήν, τὸ μὲν λογικὸν ἔχουσαν ἐν τῷ θώρακι καθιδρυμένον, τὸ δʼ ἄλογον καθʼ ὅλην τὴν σύγκρισιν τοῦ σώματος διεσπαρμένον. ὁ δὲ Δημόκριτος πάντα μετέχειν φησὶ ψυχῆς ποιᾶς, καὶ τὰ νεκρὰ τῶν σωμάτων· διότι ἀεὶ διαφανῶς τινος θερμοῦ καὶ αἰσθητικοῦ μετέχει, τοῦ πλείονος διαπνεομένου.
5. PLATO and Democritus place its residence in the whole head. Strato, in that part of the forehead where the eyebrows are separated. Erasistratus, in the Epikranis, or membrane which involves the brain. Herophilus, in that sinus of the brain which is the basis of it. Parmenides, in the whole breast; which opinion is embraced by Epicurus. The Stoics are generally of this opinion, that the seat of the soul is throughout the heart, or in the spirit which is about it. Diogenes, in the arterial ventricle of the heart, which is also filled with vital spirit. Empedocles, in the mass of the blood. There are that say it is in the neck of the heart, others in the pericardium, others in the midriff. Certain of the Neoterics, that the seat of the soul is extended from the head to the diaphragm. Pythagoras, that the animal part of the soul resides in the heart, the intellectual in the head.
5. Πλάτων Δημόκριτος ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ κεφαλῇ. Στράτων ἐν μεσοφρύῳ. Ἐρασίστρατος περὶ τὴν μήνιγγα τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου, ἣν ἐπικρανίδα λέγει. Ἡρόφιλος ἐν τῇ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου κοιλίᾳ, ἥτις ἐστὶ καὶ βάσις. Παρμενίδης ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ· θώρακι καὶ Ἐπίκουρος οἱ Στωικοὶ πάντες ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ καρδίᾳ ἢ τῷ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν πνεύματι. Διογένης ἐν τῇ ἀρτηριακῇ κοιλίᾳ τῆς καρδίας, ἥτις ἐστὶ καὶ πνευματική. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ἐν τῇ τοῦ αἵματος συστάσει. οἱ δʼ ἐν τῷ τραχήλῳ τῆς καρδίας, οἱ δʼ ἐν τῷ περικαρδίῳ ὑμένι, οἱ δʼ ἐν τῷ διαφράγματι. τῶν νεωτέρων τινὲς διήκειν ἀπὸ κεφαλῆς μέχρι τοῦ διαφράγματος. Πυθαγόρας τὸ μὲν ζωτικὸν περὶ τὴν καρδίαν, τὸ δὲ λογικὸν καὶ νοερὸν περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν.
6. PLATO believes that the soul is in perpetual motion, but that the mind is immovable with respect to motion from place to place. Aristotle, that the soul is not naturally moved, but its motion is accidental, resembling that which is in the forms of bodies.
6. Πλάτων ἀεικίνητον μὲν τὴν ψυχήν, τὸν δὲ νοῦν ἀκίνητον τῆς μεταβατικῆς· κινήσεως. Ἀριστοτέλης ἀκίνητον τὴν ψυχὴν πάσης κινήσεως προηγουμένην, τῆς δὲ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς μετέχειν καθάπερ τὰ εἴδη τῶν σωμάτων.
7. PLATO and Pythagoras say that the soul is immortal; when it departs out of the body, it retreats to the soul of the world, which is a being of the same nature with it. The Stoics, when the souls leave the bodies, they are carried to divers places; the souls of the unlearned and ignorant descend to the coagmentation of earthly things, but the learned and vigorous endure till the general fire. Epicurus and Democritus, the soul is mortal, and it perisheth with the body. Plato and Pythagoras, that part of the soul of man which is rational is eternal; for though it be not God, yet it is the product of an eternal Deity; but that part of the soul which is divested of reason dies.
7. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων ἄφθαρτον εἶναι τὴν ψυχήν. … ἐξιοῦσαν γὰρ εἰς τὴν τοῦ παντὸς ψυχὴν ἀναχωρεῖν πρὸς τὸ ὁμογενὲς οἱ Στωικοὶ ἐξιοῦσαν ἐκ τῶν σωμάτων ὑποφέρεσθαι … τὴν μὲν ἀσθενεστέραν ἅμα τοῖς συγκρίμασι γίνεσθαι, ταύτην δʼ εἶναι τῶν ἀπαιδεύτων τὴν δʼ ἰσχυροτέραν, οἵα ἐστὶ περὶ τοὺς σοφούς, καὶ μέχρι τῆς ἐκπυρώσεως Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος φθαρτὴν τῷ σώματι συνδιαφθειρομένην, Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων τὸ μὲν λογικὸν ἄφθαρτον καὶ γὰρ τὴν ψυχὴν οὐ θεὸν ἀλλʼ ἔργον τοῦ ἀιδίου θεοῦ ὑπάρχειν· τὸ δʼ ἄλογον φθαρτόν.
8. THE Stoics give this definition of sense: Sense is the apprehension or comprehension of an object by means of an organ. There are several ways of expressing what sense is; it is either a habit, a faculty, an operation, or an imagination which apprehends by means of an organ of sense,—and also the eighth principal thing, from whence the senses are derived. The instruments of sense are intelligent spirits, which from the said commanding part reach unto all the organs of the body. Epicurus, that sense is a faculty, and that which is perceived by the sense is the product of it; so that sense hath a double acceptation,—sense which is the faculty, and the thing received by the sense, which is the effect. Plato, that sense is that commerce which the soul and body have with those things that are exterior to them; the power of which is from the soul, the organ by which is from the body; but both of them apprehend exterior objects by means of the imagination. Leucippus and Democritus, that sense and intelligence arise from external images; so neither of them can operate without the assistance of an image falling upon us.
8. οἱ Στωικοὶ ὁρίζονται οὕτως τὴν αἴσθησιν αἴσθησίς ἐστιν ἀντίληψις διʼ αἰσθητηρίου ἢ κατάληψις. πολλαχῶς δὲ λέγεται ἡ αἴσθησις τε γὰρ ἕξις καὶ ἡ δύναμις καὶ ἡ ἐνέργεια καὶ ἡ φαντασία ἡ καταληπτικὴ διʼ αἰσθητηρίου γίνονται, καὶ· αὐτὸ τὸ ἡγεμονικόν, ἀφʼ οὗ συνίσταται. πάλιν δʼ αἰσθητήρια λέγεται πνεύματα νοερὰ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ ἐπὶ τὰ ὄργανα τεταμένα. Ἐπίκουρος· τὸ μόριόν ἐστιν ἡ αἴσθησις ἥτις ἐστὶν ἡ δύναμις, καὶ τὸ ἐπαίσθημα ὅπερ ἐστὶ τὸ ἐνέργημα ὥστε διχῶς παρʼ αὐτῷ λέγεσθαι αἴσθησιν μὲν τὴν δύναμιν αἰσθητὸν δὲ τὸ ἐνέργημα. Πλάτων τὴν αἴσθησιν ἀποφαίνεται ψυχῆς καὶ σώματος κοινωνίαν πρὸς τὰ ἐκτός,· ἡ μὲν γὰρ δύναμις ψυχῆς τὸ δʼ ὄργανον σώματος ἄμφω δὲ· διὰ φαντασίας ἀντιληπτικὰ τῶν ἔξωθεν γίνεται. Λεύκιππος Δημόκριτος τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ τὴν νόησιν γίνεσθαι, εἰδώλων ἔξωθεν προσιόντων· μηδενὶ γὰρ ἐπιβάλλειν μηδετέραν χωρὶς τοῦ προσπίπτοντος εἰδώλου.
9. THE Stoics say that what the senses represent is true; what the imagination, is partly false, partly true. Epicurus, that every impression which either the sense or fancy gives us is true, but of those things that fall under the account of opinion, some are true, some false: sense gives us a false representation of those things only which are the objects of our understanding; but the fancy gives us a double error, both of things sensible and things intellectual. Empedocles and Heraclides, that the senses perceive by a just accommodation of the pores in every case; every thing that is perceived by the sense being congruously adapted to its proper organ.
9. οἱ Στωικοὶ τὰς μὲν αἰσθήσεις ἀληθεῖς, τῶν δὲ φαντασιῶν τὰς μὲν ἀληθεῖς τὰς δὲ ψευδεῖς. Ἐπίκουρος πᾶσαν αἴσθησιν καὶ πᾶσαν φαντασίαν ἀληθῆ, τῶν δὲ δοξῶν τὰς μὲν ἀληθεῖς τὰς δὲ ψευδεῖς· καὶ ἡ μὲν αἴσθησις μοναχῶς ψευδοποιεῖται κατὰ,τὰ νοητά, ἡ δὲ φαντασία διχῶς καὶ γὰρ αἰσθητῶν ἔστι φαντασία καὶ νοητῶν. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς Ἡρακλείδης παρὰ τὰς συμμετρίας τῶν πόρων τὰς κατὰ μέρος αἰσθήσεις γίνεσθαι, τοῦ οἰκείου τῶν αἰσθητῶν ἑκάστῃ ἁρμόζοντος.
10. THE Stoics say that there are five senses properly so called, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching. Aristotle indeed doth not add a sixth sense; but he assigns a common sense, which is the judge of all compounded species; into this each sense casts its proper representation, in which is discovered a transition of one thing into another, like as we see in figure and motion where there is a change of one into another. Democritus, that there are several species of senses, which appertain to beings destitute of reason, to the Gods, and to wise men.
10. οἱ Στωικοὶ πέντε τὰς εἰδικὰς αἰσθήσεις, ὅρασιν ἀκοὴν ὄσφρησιν γεῦσιν ἁφήν. Ἀριστοτέλης ἕκτην μὲν οὐ λέγει, κοινὴν δʼ αἴσθησιν τὴν τῶν συνθέτων εἰδῶν κριτικήν, εἰς ἣν πᾶσαι συμβάλλουσιν αἱ ἁπλαῖ τὰς ἰδίας ἑκάστη φαντασίας· ἐν ᾗ τὸ μεταβατικὸν ἀφʼ ἑτέρου πρὸς ἕτερον, οἱονεὶ σχήματος καὶ κινήσεως, δείκνυται. Δημόκριτος πλείους εἶναι αἰσθήσεις, περὶ τὰ ἄλογα ζῷα καὶ περὶ τοὺς σοφοὺς καὶ περὶ τοὺς θεούς.
11. THE Stoics affirm that every man, as soon as he is born, has the principal and commanding part of his soul, which is in him like a sheet of writing-paper, to which he commits all his notions. The first manner of his inscribing is by denoting those notions which flow from the senses. Suppose it be of a thing that is white; when the present sense of it is vanished, there is yet retained the remembrance; when many memorative notions of the same similitude do concur, then he is said to have an experience; for experience is nothing else but the abundance of notions that are of the same form met together. Some of these notions are naturally begotten according to the aforesaid manner, without the assistance of art; the others are produced by discipline, learning, and industry; these only are properly called notions, the others are prenotions. But reason, which gives us the denomination of rational, is completed by prenotions in the first seven years. The conception of the mind is the vision that the intelligence of a rational animal hath received; when that vision falls upon the rational soul, then it is called the conception of the mind, for it hath derived its name from the mind (ἐννόημα from νοῦς). Therefore these visions are not to be found in any other animals; they are appropriated only to Gods and to us men. If these we consider generally, they are phantasms; if specifically, they are notions. As pence or staters, if you consider them according to their own value, are merely pence and staters; but if you give them as a price for a naval voyage, they are called not merely pence, etc., but your fraught.
11. οἱ Στωικοί φασιν· ὅταν γεννηθῇ ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἔχει τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν μέρος τῆς ψυχῆς ὥσπερ χάρτην εὐεργὸν εἰς ἀπογραφήν. εἰς τοῦτο μίαν ἑκάστην τῶν ἐννοιῶν ἐναπογράφεται. πρῶτος δʼ ὁ τῆς ἀναγραφῆς τρόπος ὁ διὰ τῶν αἰσθήσεων αἰσθανόμενοι γάρ τινος οἷον λευκοῦ, ἀπελθόντος αὐτοῦ μνήμην ἔχουσιν· ὅταν δʼ ὁμοειδεῖς πολλαὶ μνῆμαι γένωνται, τότε φαμὲν ἔχειν ἐμπειρίαν ἐμπειρία γάρ ἐστι τὸ τῶν ὁμοειδῶν πλῆθος. τῶν δʼ ἐννοιῶν αἱ μὲν φυσικῶς γίνονται κατὰ τοὺς εἰρημένους τρόπους καὶ ἀνεπιτεχνήτως, αἱ δʼ ἢδη διʼ ἡμετέρας διδασκαλίας καὶ ἐπιμελείας αὗται μὲν οὖν ἔννοιαι καλοῦνται μόνον, ἐκεῖναι δὲ καὶ προλήψεις. ὁ δὲ· λόγος, καθʼ ὃν προσαγορευόμεθα λογικοί, ἐκ τῶν προλήψεων συμπληροῦσθαι λέγεται κατὰ τὴν πρώτην ἑβδομάδα. ἔστι δʼ ἐννόημα φάντασμα διανοίας λογικοῦ ζῴου τὸ γὰρ φάντασμα, ἐπειδὰν λογικῇ προσπίπτῃ ψυχῇ, τότε ἐννόημα καλεῖται, εἰληφὸς τοὔνομα παρὰ τοῦ νοῦ. διόπερ τοῖς ἀλόγοις ζῴοις οὐ προσπίπτει φαντάσματα· ὅσα δὲ καὶ τοῖς θεοῖς καὶ ἡμῖν γε ταῦτα φαντάσματα μόνον ἐστίν ὅσα δʼ ἡμῖν, ταῦτα καὶ φαντάσματα κατὰ γένος καὶ ἐννοήματα κατʼ εἶδος· ὥσπερ τὰ δηνάρια καὶ οἱ στατῆρες, αὐτὰ μὲν καθʼ αὑτὰ ὑπάρχει δηνάρια καὶ στατῆρες· ἐὰν δ’ εἰς πλοίων δοθῇ μίσθωσιν, τηνικαῦτα πρὸς τῷ δηνάρια εἶναι καὶ ναῦλα λέγεται.
12. CHRYSIPPUS affirms, these four are different one from another. Imagination (he says) is that passion raised in the soul which discovers itself and that which was the efficient of it; for example, after the eye hath looked upon a thing that is white, the sight of which produceth in the mind a certain impression, this gives us reason to conclude that the object of this impression is white, which affecteth us. So is it with touching and smelling. Phantasy or imagination is denominated from φῶς, which denotes light; for as light discovers itself and all other things which it illuminates, so this imagination discovers itself and that which is the cause of it. The imaginable is the efficient cause of imagination; as any thing that is white, or any thing that is cold, or every thing that may make an impression upon the imagination. Fancy is a vain impulse upon the mind of man, proceeding from nothing which is really imaginable; this is experienced in those that whirl about their idle hands and fight with shadows; for to the imagination there is always some real imaginable thing presented, which is the efficient cause of it; but to the fancy nothing. A phantom is that to which we are led by such a fanciful and vain attraction; this is to be seen in melancholy and distracted persons. Of this sort was Orestes in the tragedy, pronouncing these words:Mother, these maids with horror me affright;Oh hurl them not, I pray, into my sight!They’re smeared with blood, and cruel, dragon-like,Skipping about with deadly fury strike. These rave as frantic persons, they see nothing, and yet imagine they see. Thence Electra thus returns to him:O wretched man, securely sleep in bed;Nothing thou seest, thy fancy’s vainly led. After the same manner Theoclymenus in Homer.
12. Χρύσιππος διαφέρειν ἀλλήλων φησὶ τέτταρα ταῦτα. φαντασία μὲν οὖν ἐστι πάθος ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ γινόμενον, ἐνδεικνύμενον ἐν αὑτῷ καὶ τὸ πεποιηκός· οἷον, ἐπειδὰν ὅψεως θεωρῶμέν τὸ λευκόν, ἔστι πάθος τὸ ἐγγεγενημένον διὰ τῆς ὁράσεως ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ· καὶ κατὰ τοῦτο τὸ πάθος εἰπεῖν ἔχομεν, ὅτι ὑπόκειται λευκὸν κινοῦν ἡμᾶς. ὁμοίως καὶ διὰ τῆς ἁφῆς καὶ τῆς ὀσφρήσεως;. εἴρηται δʼ ἡ φαντασία ἀπὸ τοῦ φωτός· καθάπερ γὰρ τὸ φῶς αὑτὸ δείκνυσι καὶ τὰ ἄλλα τὰ ἐν αὐτῷ περιεχόμενα, καὶ ἡ φαντασία δείκνυσιν ἑαυτὴν καὶ τὸ πεποιηκὸς αὐτήν. φανταστὸν δὲ τὸ ποιοῦν τὴν φαντασίαν· οἷον τὸ λευκὸν καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, καὶ πᾶν ὅ τι ἂν δύνηται κινεῖν τὴν ψυχήν, τοῦτʼ ἔστι φανταστόν. φανταστικὸν δʼ ἐστὶ διάκενος ἑλκυσμός, πάθος ἐν. τῇ ψυχῇ οῦδενὲις φανταστοῦ γινόμενον· καθάπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ σκιαμαχοῦντος καὶ κενοῖς ἐπιφέροντος τὰς χεῖρας τῇ γὰρ φαντασίᾳ ὑπόκειταί τι φανταστόν, τῷ δὲ φανταστικῷ οὐδέν. φάντασμα δʼ δ’ ἐστίν, ἐφʼ ὃ ἑλκόμεθα κατὰ τὸν φανταστικὸν διάκενον ἑλκυσμόν· ταῦτα δὲ γίνεται ἐπὶ τῶν μελαγχολώντων καὶ μεμηνότων. ὁ γοῦν τραγικὸς Ὀρέστης, ὅταν λέγῃὦ μῆτερ, ἱκετεύω σε, μὴ πίσειέ μοιτὰς αἱματωποὺς καὶ δρακοντώδεις κόρας·αὗται γάρ, αὗται πλησίον θρώσκουσί μουλέγει μὲν αὐφὰ ὡς μεμηνὼς ὁρᾷ δʼ οὐδέν, ἀλλὰ δοκεῖ μόνον· διὸ καί φησιν αὐτῷ Ἠλέκτραὁρᾷς γὰρ οὐδὲν ὧν δοκεῖς σάφʼ εἰδέναι,ὡς καὶ παρʼ Ὁμήρῳ Θεοκλύμενος Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος κατʼ εἰδώλων εἰσκρίσεις ᾤοντο τὸ ὁρατικὸν συμβαίνειν, καὶ κατά τινων ἀκτίνων ἔκκρισιν μετὰ τὴν πρὸς τὸ ὑποκείμενον ἔνστασιν πάλιν ὑποστρεφουσῶν πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν.
13. DEMOCRITUS and Epicurus suppose that sight is caused by the insinuation of little images into the visive organ, and by the entrance of certain rays which return to the eye after striking upon the object. Empedocles supposes that images are mixed with the rays of the eye; these he styles the rays of images. Hipparchus, that the visual rays extend from both the eyes to the superficies of bodies, and give to the sight the apprehension of those same bodies, after the same manner in which the hand touching the extremity of bodies gives the sense of feeling. Plato, that the sight is the splendor of united rays; there is a light which reaches some distance from the eyes into a congruous air, and there is likewise a light emitted from bodies, which meets and is joined with the fiery visual light in the intermediate air (which is liquid and mutable); and the conjunction of these rays gives the sense of seeing. This is Plato’s corradiancy, or splendor of united rays.
13. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τοῖς εἰδώλοις τὰς ἀκτῖνας ἀνέμιξε, προσαγορεύσας τὸ γιγνόμενον ἀκτινείδωλον συνθέτως. Ἵππαρχος ἀκτῖνάς φησιν ἀφʼ ἑκατέρου τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ἀποτεινομένας τοῖς πέρασιν αὑτῶν οἷον χειρῶν ἐπαφαῖς περικαθαπτούσας τοῖς ἐκτὸς σώμασι τὴν ἀντίληψιν αὐτῶν πρὸς τὸ ὁρατικὸν ἀποδιδόναι. Πλάτων κατὰ συναύγειαν, τοῦ μὲν ἐκ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν φωτὸς ἐπὶ ποσὸν ἀπορρέοντος εἰς τὸν ὁμογενῆ ἀέρα, τοῦ δʼ ἀπὸ τῶν σωμάτων φερομένου, τοῦ δὲ περὶ τὸν μεταξὺ ἀέρα εὐδιάχυτον ὄντα καὶ εὔτρεπτον συνεκτεινομένου τῷ πυρώδει τῆς ὄψεως αὕτη λέγεται Πλατωνικὴ συναύγεια.
14. EMPEDOCLES says that these images are caused by certain effluvias which, meeting together and insisting upon the superficies of the mirror, are perfected by that fiery quality emitted by the said mirror, which transmutes withal the air that surrounds it. Democritus and Epicurus, that the specular appearances are formed by the subsistence of the images which flow from our eyes; these fall upon the mirror and remain, while the light rebounds to the eye. The followers of Pythagoras explain it by the reflection of the sight; for our sight being extended (as it were) to the brass, and meeting with the smooth dense surface thereof it is struck back, and caused to return upon itself: the same appears in the hand, when it is stretched out and then brought back again to the shoulder. Any one may apply these instances to explain the manner of seeing.
14. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς κατʼ ἀπορροίας τὰς συνισταμένας μὲν ἐπὶ τῆς ἐπιφανείας τοῦ κατόπτρου τελειουμένας δʼ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐκκρινομένου ἐκ τοῦ κατόπτρου πυρώδους καὶ τὸν προκείμενον ἀέρα, εἰς ὃν φέρεται τὰ ῥεύματα, συμμεταφέροντος. Δημόκριτος Ἐπίκουρος τὰς κατοπτρικὰς ἐμφάσεις γίνεσθαι κατʼ εἰδώλων ὑποστάσεις, ἅτινα φέρεσθαι μὲν ἀφʼ ἡμῶν συνίστασθαι δʼ ἐπὶ τοῦ κατόπτρου κατʼ ἀντιπεριστροφήν, οἱ ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου κατʼ ἀντανακλάσεις τῆς ὂψεως· φέρεσθαι μὲν γὰρ τὴν ὄψιν τεταμένην ὡς ἐπὶ τὸν χαλκόν, ἐντυχοῦσαν δὲ πυκνῷ καὶ λείῳ πληχθεῖσαν ὑποστρέφειν αὐτὴν ἐφʼ ἑαυτήν, ὅμοιόν τι πάσχουσαν τῇ ἐκτάσει τῆς χειρὸς καὶ τῇ ἐπὶ τὸν ὦμον ἀντεπιστροφῇ. δύναταί τις πᾶσι τούτοις τοῖς κεφαλαίοις χρῆσθαι ἐπὶ τοῦ πῶς ὁρῶμεν.
15. THE Stoics say that darkness is seen by us, for out of our eyes there issues out some light into it; and our eyes do not impose upon us, for they really perceive there is darkness. Chrysippus says that we see darkness by the striking of the intermediate air; for the visual spirits which proceed from the principal part of the soul and reach to the ball of the eye pierce this air, which, after they have made those strokes upon it, presses conically on the surrounding air, where this is homogeneous. For from the eyes those rays are poured forth which are neither black nor cloudy. Upon this account darkness is visible to us.
15. οἱ Στωικοὶ ὁρατὸν εἶναι τὸ σκότος· ἐκ γὰρ τῆς ὁράσεως προχεῖσθαί τινα εἰς αὐτὸ αὐγήν· καὶ οὐ ψεύδεται ἡ ὅρασις, βλέπεται γὰρ ταῖς ἀληθείαις, ὅτι ἔστι σκότος. Χρύσιππος κατὰ τὴν συνέντασιν τοῦ μεταξὺ ἀέρος ὁρᾶν ἡμᾶς, νυγέντος μὲν ὑπὸ τοῦ ὁρατικοῦ πνεύματος, ὅπερ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι τῆς κόρης διήκει, κατὰ δὲ τὴν πρὸς τὸν περικείμενον ἀέρα ἐπιβολὴν ἐντείνοντος αὐτὸν κωνοειδῶς, ὅταν ᾖ ὁμογενὴς ὁ ἀήρ. προχέονται δʼ ἐκ τῆς ὄψεως ἀκτῖνες πύριναι, οὐχὶ μέλαιναι καὶ ὁμιχλώδεις· διόπερ ὁρατὸν εἶναι τὸ σκότος.
16. EMPEDOCLES says that hearing is formed by the insidency of the air upon the spiral, which it is said hangs within the ear as a bell, and is beat upon by the air. Alcmaeon, that the vacuity that is within the ear makes us to have the sense of hearing, for the air forcing a vacuum gives the sound; every inanity affords a ringing. Diogenes, the air which is in the head, being struck upon by the voice, gives the hearing. Plato and his followers, the air which exists in the head being struck upon, is reflected to the principal part of the soul, and this causeth the sense of hearing.
16. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὴν ἀκοὴν γίνεσθαι κατὰ πρόσπτωσιν πνεύματος τῷ χονδρώδει, ὅπερ φησὶν ἐξηρτῆσθαι, ἐντὸς τοῦ ὠτὸς κώδωνος δίκην αἰωρούμενον καὶ τυπτόμενον. Ἀλκμαίων ἀκούειν ἡμᾶς τῷ κενῷ τῷ ἐντὸς τοῦ ὠτός· τοῦτο γὰρ εἶναι· τὸ διηχοῦν κατὰ τὴν τοῦ πνεύματος ἐμβολήν· πάντα γὰρ τὰ κενὰ ἠχεῖ. Διογένης, τοῦ ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ ἀέρος ὑπὸ τῆς φωνῆς τυπτομένου καὶ κινουμένου. Πλάτων καὶ οἱ ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ πλήττεσθαι τὸν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ ἀέρα· τοῦτον δʼ ἀνακλᾶσθαι εἰς τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν καὶ γίνεσθαι τῆς ἀκοῆς τὴν αἴσθησιν.
17. ALCMAEON believes that the principal part of the soul, residing in the brain, draws to itself odors by respiration. Empedocles, that scents insert themselves into the breathing of the lungs; for, when there is a great difficulty in breathing, odors are not perceived by reason of the sharpness; and this we experience in those who have the defluxion of rheum.
17. Ἀλκμαίων ἐν τῷ ἐγκεφάλῳ εἶναι τὸ ἡγεμονικόν τούτῳ οὖν ὀσφραίνεσθαι ἕλκοντι διὰ τῶν, ἀναπνοῶν τὰς ὀσμάς. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς ταῖς ἀναπνοαῖς ταῖς ἀπὸ τοῦ· πνεύμονος συνεισκρίνεσθαι τὴν ὀδμήν· ὅταν γοῦν ἡ ἀναπνοὴ βαρεῖα γίνηται, κατὰ τραχύτητα μὴ συναισθάνεσθαι, ὡς ἐπὶ τῶν ῥευματιζομένων.
18. ALCMAEON says that a moist warmth in the tongue, joined with the softness of it, gives the difference of taste. Diogenes, that by the softness and sponginess of the tongue, and because the veins of the body are joined in it, tastes are diffused by the tongue; for they are attracted from it to that sense and to the commanding part of the soul, as from a sponge.
18. Ἀλκμαίων τῷ ὑγρῷ καὶ τῷ χλιαρῷ τῷ ἐν τῇ γλώττῃ πρὸς τῇ μαλακότητι διακρίνεσθαι τοὺς χυμούς. Διογένης; τῇ ἀραιότητι τῆς γλώττης καὶ τῇ μαλακότητι καὶ διὰ τὸ συνάπτειν τὰς ἀπὸ τοῦ σώματος εἰς αὐτὴν φλέβας διαχεῖσθαι τοὺς χυμοὺς ἑλκομένους ἐπὶ τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ τὸ ἡγεμονικόν, καθάπερ ἀπὸ σπογγιᾶς, Πλάτων τὴν φωνὴν ὁρίζεται πνεῦμα διὰ στόματος ἀπὸ διανοίας ἠγμένον καὶ πληγὴν ὑπὸ ἀέρος διʼ ὤτων καὶ ἐγκεφάλου καὶ αἵματος μέχρι ψυχῆς διαδιδομένην.
19. PLATO thus defines a voice,—that it is a breath drawn by the mind through the mouth, and a blow given to the air and through the ear, brain, and blood transmitted to the soul. Voice is abusively attributed to irrational and inanimate beings; thus we improperly call the neighing of horses or any other sound by the name of voice. But properly a voice (φωνή) is an articulate sound, which illustrates (φωτίζει) the understanding of man. Epicurus says that it is an efflux emitted from things that are vocal, or that give sounds or great noises; this is broken into those fragments which are after the same configuration. Like figures are round figures with round, and irregular and triangular with those of the same nature. These falling upon the ears produce the sense of hearing. This is seen in leaking vessels, and in fullers when they fan or blow their cloths. Democritus, that the air is broken into bodies of similar configuration, and these are rolled up and down with the fragments of the voice; as it is proverbially said, One daw lights with another, or, God always brings like to like. Thus we see upon the shore, that stones like to one another are found in the same place, in one place the long-shaped, in another the round are seen. So in sieves, things that are of the same form meet together, but those that are different are divided; as pulse and beans falling from the same sieve are separated one from another. To this it may be objected: How can some fragments of air fill a theatre in which there is an infinite company of persons? The Stoics, that the air is not composed of small fragments, but is a continued body and nowhere admits a vacuum; and being struck with the breath, it is infinitely moved in waves and in right circles, until it fill that air which invests it; as we see in a fish-pool which we smite by a falling stone cast upon it; yet the air is moved spherically, the water orbicularly. Anaxagoras says a voice is then formed, when upon a solid air the breath is incident, which being repercussed is carried to the ears; after the same manner the echo is produced.
19. λέγεται δὲ καὶ καταχρηστικῶς ἐπὶ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων φωνὴ καὶ τῶν ἀψύχων, ὡς χρεμετισμοὶ καὶ ψόφοι· κυρίως δὲ φωνὴ ἡ ἔναρθρός ἐστιν, ὡς φωτίζουσα τὸ νοούμενον. Ἐπίκουρος τὴν φωνὴν εἶναι ῥεῦμα ἐκπεμπόμενον ἀπὸ τῶν φωνούντων ἢ ἠχούντων ἢ ψοφούντων· τοῦτο δὲ τὸ ῥεῦμα εἰς ὁμοιοσχήμονα θρύπτεσθαι θραύσματα ὁμοιοσχήμονα δὲ λέγεται τὰ στρογγύλα τοῖς στρογγύλοις καὶ σκαληνὰ καὶ τρίγωνα τοῖς ὁμοιογενέσι τούτων δʼ ἐμπιπτόντων ταῖς ἀκοαῖς, ἀποτελεῖσθαι τὴν αἴσθησιν τῆς φωνῆς· φανερὸν δὲ τοῦτο γίνεσθαι ἀπὸ τῶν ἀσκῶν ἐκρεόντων καὶ τῶν ἐμφυσώντων κναφέων τοῖς ἱματίοις. Δημόκριτος καὶ τὸν ἀέρα φησὶν εἰς ὁμοιοσχὴμονα θρύπτεσθαι σώματα καὶ συγκαλινδεῖσθαι τοῖς ἐκ τῆς φωνῆς θραύσμασι κολοιὸς γὰρ παρὰ κολοιὸν ἱζάνει καὶ ὡς αἰεὶ τὸν ὁμοῖον ἄγει θεὸς ὡς τὸν ὁμοῖον, καὶ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς αἰγιαλοῖς αἱ ὅμοιαι ψῆφοι κατὰ τοὺς αὐτοὺς τόπους ὁρῶνται, κατʼ ἄλλο μὲν αἱ σφαιροειδεῖς κατʼ ἄλλο δʼ αἱ ἐπιμήκεις· καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν κοσκινευόντων δʼ ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ συναλίζεται τὰ ὁμοιοσχήμονα, ὥστε χωρὶς εἶναι τοὺς κυάμους καὶ ἐρεβίνθους. ἔχοι δʼ ἄν τις πρὸς τούτους εἰπεῖν, πῶς ὀλίγα θραύσματα πνεύματος μυρίανδρον ἐκπληροῖ θέατρον; οἱ δὲ Στωικοί φασι τὸν ἀέρα μὴ συγκεῖσθαι ἐκ θραυσμάτων, ἀλλὰ συνεχῆ εἶναι, διʼ ὅλου μηδὲν κενὸν ἔχοντα ἐπειδὰν δὲ πληγῇ πνεύματι, κυματοῦται κατὰ κύκλους ὀρθοὺς εἰς ἄπειρον, ἕως πληρώσῃ τὸν περικείμενον ἀέρα, ὡς ἐπὶ τῆς κολυμβήθρας τῆς πληγείσης λίθῳ· καὶ αὕτη μὲν κυκλικῶς κινεῖται ὁ δʼ ἀὴρ σφαιρικῶς Ἀναξαγόρας τὴν φωνὴν γίνεσθαι πνεύματος ἀντιπεσόντος μὲν στερεμνίῳ ἀέρι, τῇ δʼ ὑποστροφῇ τῆς πλήξεως μέχρι τῶν ἀκοῶν προσενεχθέντος· καθὸ καὶ τὴν λεγομένην ἠχὼ γίνεσθαι.
20. PYTHAGORAS, Plato, and Aristotle say that the voice is incorporeal; for it is not the air that makes the voice, but the figure which compasseth the air and its superficies, having received a stroke, give the voice. But every superficies of itself is incorporeal. True it is that it moveth with the body, but of itself it hath no body; as we perceive in a staff that is bended, the matter only admits of an inflection, while the superficies doth not. According to the Stoics, a voice is corporeal, since every thing that is an agent or operates is a body; a voice acts and operates, for we hear it and are sensible of it; for it falls and makes an impression on the ear, as a seal of a ring gives its similitude upon the wax. Moreover, every thing that creates a delight or molestation is a body; harmonious music affects with delight, but discord is tiresome. And every thing that is moved is a body; and the voice moves, and having its illapse upon smooth places is reflected, as when a ball is cast against a wall it rebounds. A voice spoken in the Egyptian pyramids is so broken, that it gives four or five echoes.
20. Πυθαγόρας Πλάτων Ἀριστοτέλης ἀσώματον· οὐ γὰρ τὸν ἀέρα, ἀλλὰ τὸ σχῆμα τὸ περὶ τὸν ἀέρα καὶ τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν κατὰ ποιὰν πλῆξιν γίνεσθαι φωνήν· πᾶσα δʼ ἐπιφάνεια ἀσώματος. συγκινεῖται μὲν γὰρ τοῖς σώμασιν αὐτὴ δʼ ἀσώματος πάντως καθέστηκεν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῆς καμπτομένης ῥάβδου ἡ μὲν ἐπιφάνεια οὐδὲν πάσχει ἡ δʼ ὕλη ἐστὶν ἡ καμπτομένη. οἱ δὲ Στωικοὶ σῶμα τὴν φωνήν· πᾶν γὰρ τὸ δρῶν ἢ καὶ ποιοῦν σῶμα, ἡ δὲ φωνὴ ποιεῖ καὶ δρᾷ ἀκούομεν γὰρ αὐτῆς καὶ αἰσθανόμεθα προσπιπτούσης τῇ ἀκοῇ,· καὶ ἐκτυπούσης καθάπερ δακτυλίου εἰς κηρόν. ἔτι πᾶν τὸ κινοῦν καὶ ἐνοχλοῦν σῶμά ἐστι, κινεῖ δʼ ἡμᾶς ἡ εὐμουσία ἐνοχλεῖ δʼ ἡ ἀμουσία. ἔτι πᾶν τὸ κινούμενον σῶμά ἐστι· κινεῖται δʼ ἡ φωνὴ καὶ προσπίπτει εἰς τοὺς λείους τόπους καὶ ἀντανακλᾶται, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῆς σφαίρας τῆς βαλλομένης εἰς τοῖχον ἐν γοῦν ταῖς κατʼ Αἴγυπτον πυραμίσιν ἔνδον μία φωνὴ ῥηγνυμένη τέτταρας ἢ καὶ πέντε ἤχους ἀπεργάζεται.
21. THE Stoics say that the highest part of the soul is the commanding part of it: this is the cause of sense, imagination, consents, and desires; and this we call the rational part. From this principal and commander there are produced seven parts of the soul, which are spread through the body, as the seven arms in a polypus. Of these seven parts, five are assigned to the senses, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching. Sight is a spirit which is extended from the commanding part to the eyes; hearing is that spirit which from the principal reacheth to the ears; smelling a spirit drawn from the principal to the nostrils; tasting a spirit extended from the principal to the tongue; touching is a spirit which from the principal is drawn to the extremity of those bodies which are obnoxious to a sensible touch. Of the rest, the one called the spermatical is a spirit which reacheth from the principal to the generating vessels; the other, which is the vocal and termed the voice, is a spirit extended from the principal to the throat, tongue, and other proper organs of speaking. And this principal part itself hath that place in our spherical head which God hath in the world.
21. οἱ Στωικοί φασιν εἶναι τῆς ψυχῆς ἀνώτατον μέρος τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν τὸ ποιοῦν τὰς φαντασίας καὶ συγκαταθέσεις καὶ αἰσθήσεις καὶ ὁρμάς· καὶ τοῦτο λογισμὸν καλοῦσιν. ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ ἑπτὰ μέρη ἐστὶ τῆς ψυχῆς ἐκπεφυκότα καὶ ἐκτεινόμενα εἰς· τὸ σῶμα, καθάπερ αἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ πολύποδος πλεκτάναι· τῶν δʼ ἑπτὰ μερῶν τῆς ψυχῆς πέντε μέν εἰσι τὰ αἰσθητήρια, ὅρασις ὄσφρησις ἀκοὴ γεῦσις καὶ ἁφή· ὧν ἡ μὲν ὅρασίς ἐστι πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρις ὀφθαλμῶν, ἀκοὴ δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρις ὤτων, ὄσφρησις δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι μυκτήρων, γεῦσις δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ, μέχρι γλώττης, ἁφὴ δὲ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρις ἐπιφανείας εἰς θίξιν εὐαίσθητον τῶν προσπιπτόντων. τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν τὸ μὲν λέγεται σπέρμα, ὅπερ καὶ αὐτὸ πνεῦμά, ἐστι διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι τῶν παραστατῶν· τὸ δὲ φωνᾶεν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ζήνωνος εἰρημένον, ὃ καὶ φωνὴν καλοῦσιν, ἐστὶ πνεῦμα διατεῖνον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡγεμονικοῦ μέχρι φάρυγγος καὶ γλώττης καὶ τῶν οἰκείων ὀργάνων. αὐτὸ δὲ τὸ ἡγεμονικὸν ὥσπερ ἐν κόσμῳ κατοικεῖ ἐν τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ σφαιροειδεῖ κεφαλῇ.
22. EMPEDOCLES thinks, that the first breath the first animal drew was when the moisture in unborn infants was separated, and by that means an entrance was given to the external air into the gaping vessels, the moisture in them being evacuated. After this the natural heat, in a violent force pressing upon the external air for a passage, begets an expiration; but this heat returning to the inward parts, and the air giving way to it, causeth an inspiration. The respiration that now is arises when the blood is carried to the exterior surface, and by this fluxion drives the airy substance through the nostrils; thus in its recess it causeth expiration, but the air being again forced into those places which are emptied of blood, it causeth an inspiration. To evince which, he proposeth the instance of a water-clock, which gives the account of time by the running of water. Asclepiades supposeth the lungs to be in the manner of a tunnel, and maketh the cause of breathing to be the fineness of the inward parts of the breast; for thither the outward air which is more gross hastens, but is forced backward, the breast not being capable either to receive or want it. But there being always some of the more tenuous parts of the air left, so that all of it is not exploded, to that which there remains the more ponderous external air with equal violence is forced; and this he compares to cupping-glasses. All spontaneous breathings are formed by the contracting of the smaller pores of the lungs, and to the closing up of the pipes in the neck; for these are at our command. Herophilus attributes a moving faculty to the nerves, arteries, and muscles, but believes that the lungs are affected only with a natural desire of enlarging and contracting themselves. Farther, there is the first operation of the lungs by attraction of the outward air, which is drawn in because of the abundance of the external air. Next to this, there is a second natural appetite of the lungs; the breast, pouring in upon itself the breath, and being filled, is no longer able to make an attraction, and throws the superfluity of it upon the lungs, whereby it is in turn sent forth by way of expiration; the parts of the body mutually concurring to this function by the alternate participation of fulness and emptiness. So that to lungs pertain four motions;—first, when the lungs receive the outward air; secondly, when the outward air thus entertained is transmitted to the breast; thirdly, when the lungs again receive that air which they imparted to the breast; fourthly, when this air then received from the breast is thrown outwards. Of these four motions two are dilatations, one when the lungs attract the external air, another when the breast dischargeth itself of it upon the lungs; two are contractions, one when the breast draws into itself the air, the second when it expels this which was insinuated into it. The breast admits only of two motions;—of dilatation, when it draws from the lungs the breath, and of contraction, when it returns what it did receive.
22. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς τὴν πρώτην ἀναπνοὴν τοῦ πρώτου ζῴου γενέσθαι, τῆς μὲν ἐν τοῖς βρέφεσιν ὑγρασίας ἀποχώρησιν λαμβανούσης, πρὸς δὲ τὸ παρακενωθὲν ἐπεισόδου τοῦ ἐκτὸς ἀερώδους γινομένης εἰς τὰ παρανοιχθέντα τῶν ἀγγείων τὸ δὲ μετὰ τοῦτο ἤδη τοῦ ἐμφύτου θερμοῦ τῇ πρὸς τὸ ἐκτὸς ὁρμῇ τὸ ἀερῶδες ὑπαναθλίβοντος, τὴν ἐκπνοήν, τῇ δʼ εἰς τὸ ἐντὸς ἀνθυποχωρήσει τῷ ἀερώδει τὴν ἀντεπείσοδον παρεχομένου, τὴν εἰσπνοήν. τὴν δὲ νῦν κατέχουσαν φερομένου τοῦ αἵματος ὡς πρὸς τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν καὶ τὸ ἀερῶδες διὰ τῶν ῥινῶν ταῖς ἑαυτοῦ ἐπιρροίαις ἀναθλίβοντος κατὰ τὴν ἐκχώρησιν αὐτοῦ γίνεσθαι τὴν ἐκπνοήν· παλινδρομοῦντος δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἀέρος ἀντεπεισιόντος εἰς τὰ διὰ τοῦ αἵματος ἀραιώματα, τὴν εἰσπνοήν. ὑπομιμνήσκει δʼ αὐτὸ ἐπὶ τῆς κλεψύδρας. Ἀσκληπιάδης τὸν μὲν πνεύμονα χώνης δίκην συνίστησιν, αἰτίαν δὲ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς τὴν ἐν τῷ θώρακι λεπτομέρειαν ὑποτίθεται, πρὸς ἣν τὸν ἔξωθεν ἀέρα ῥεῖν τε καὶ φέρεσθαι παχυμερῆ ὄντα, πάλιν δʼ ἀπωθεῖσθαι, μηκέτι τοῦ θώρακος οἵου τʼ ὄντος μήτʼ ἐπεισδέχεσθαι μήθʼ ὑποστέγειν ὑπολειπομένου δέ τινος ἐν τῷ θώρακι λεπτομεροῦς ἀεὶ βραχέος ʽοὐ γὰρ ἅπαν ἐκκρίνεταἰ, πρὸς τοῦτο πάλιν τὸ εἴσω ὑπομένον βαρύτητα τοῦ ἐκτὸς ἀντεπεισφέρεσθαι. ταῦτα δὲ ταῖς σικύαις παρεικάζει· τὴν δὲ κατὰ προαίρεσιν ἀναπνοὴν γίνεσθαί φησι, συναγομένων τῶν ἐν τῷ πνεύμονι λεπτοτάτων πόρων καὶ τῶν βραγχίων στενουμένων τῇ γὰρ ἡμετέρᾳ ταῦθʼ ὑπακούει προαιρέσει. Ἡρόφιλος δυνάμεις ἀπολείπει περὶ τὰ σώματα τὰς κινητικὰς ἐν νεύροις ἐν ἀρτηρίαις ἐν μυσί· τὸν οὖν πνεύμονα νομίζει μόνον ὀρέγεσθαι διαστολῆς τε καὶ συστολῆς φυσικῶς· εἶτα δὲ καὶ τἆλλα. ἐνέργειαν μὲν οὖν εἶναι τοῦ πνεύμονος τὴν ἔξωθεν τοῦ πνεύματος ὁλκήν ὑπὸ δὲ τῆς πληρώσεως τῆς θύραθεν γινομένης ἐφέλκεται παρακειμένως δὲ διὰ τὴν δευτέραν ὄρεξιν ἐφʼ αὑτὸν ὁ θώραξ τὸ πνεῦμα μετοχετεύει, πληρωθεὶς δὲ καὶ μηκέτι ἐφέλκεσθαι δυνάμενος πάλιν εἰς τὸν πνεύμονα τὸ περιττὸν ἀντιμετερᾷ, διʼ οὗ πρὸς τὰ ἐκτὸς τὰ τῆς ἀποκρίσεως γίνεται, τῶν σωματικῶν μερῶν ἀντιπασχόντων ἀλλήλοις. ὅτε μὲν γὰρ διαστολὴ ὅτε δὲ συστολὴ γίνεται πνεύμονος, ταῖς ἀλλήλων ἀντιμεταλήψεσι πληρώσεώς τε καὶ κενώσεως γινομένης, ὡς τέσσαρας μὲν γίνεσθαι κινήσεις περὶ τὸν πνεύμονα, τὴν μὲν πρώτην καθʼ ἣν ἔξωθεν ἀέρα δέχεται, τὴν δὲ δευτέραν καθʼ ἣν τοῦθʼ ὅπερ ἐδέξατο θύραθεν ἐντὸς αὑτοῦ πρὸς τὸν θώρακα μετερᾷ, τὴν δὲ τρίτην καθʼ ἣν τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ θώρακος συστελλόμενον αὖθις εἰς αὑτὸν ἐκδέχεται, τὴν δὲ τετάρτην καθʼ ἣν τὸ ἐξ ὑποστροφῆς ἐν αὐτῷ γινόμενον θύραζε ἐξερᾷ τούτων δὲ τῶν κινήσεων δύο μὲν εἶναι διαστολάς, τὴν τʼ ἔξωθεν τὴν τʼ ἀπὸ τοῦ θώρακοσΣ· δύο δὲ συστολάς, τὴν μὲν ὅταν ὁ θώραξ ἐφʼ αὑτὸν τὸ πνευματικὸν ἑλκύσῃ, τὴν δʼ ὅταν αὐτὸς εἰς τὸν ἐκτὸς ἀέρα ἀποκρίνῃ δύο γὰρ μόναι γίνονται περὶ τὸν θώρακα, διαστολὴ μὲν ὅταν ἀπὸ τοῦ πνεύμονος ἐφέλκηται, συστολὴ δʼ ὅταν τούτῳ πάλιν ἀνταποδιδῷ οἱ Στωικοὶ τὰ μὲν πάθη ἐν τοῖς πεπονθόσι τόποις, τὰς δʼ αἰσθήσεις ἐν τῷ ἡγεμονικῷ.
23. THE Stoics say that all the passions are seated in those parts of the body which are affected, the senses have their residence in the commanding part of the soul. Epicurus, that all the passions and all the senses are in those parts which are affected, but the commanding part is subject to no passion. Strato, that all the passions and senses of the soul are in the rational or commanding part of it, and are not fixed in those places which are affected; for in this part patience takes its residence, and this is apparent in terrible and dolorous things, as also in timorous and valiant persons.
23. Ἐπίκουρος καὶ τὰ πάθη καὶ τὰς αἰσθήσεις ἐν τοῖς πεπονθόσι τόποις· τὸ, γὰρ ἡγεμονικὸν ἀπαθές. Στράτων καὶ τὰ πάθη τῆς ψυχῆς καὶ τὰς αἰσθήσεις ἐν τῷ ἡγεμονικῷ οὐκ ἐν τοῖς πεπονθόσι τόποις συνίστασθαι. ἐν γὰρ ταύτῃ κεῖσθαι τὴν ὑπομονήν, ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν δεινῶν καὶ ἀλγεινῶν καὶ ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνδρείων καὶ δειλῶν.