---
title: "The Orator’s Education · Institutio oratoria"
author: "Quintilian"
translator: "Harold Edgeworth Butler"
languages: [la, en]
shelf: "Classical Latin"
section: 2 of 53
url: https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/2/
cite: "Quintilian, tr. Harold Edgeworth Butler, The Orator’s Education · Institutio oratoria, section 2. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/2/"
---

# The Orator’s Education · Institutio oratoria

*Quintilian, tr. Harold Edgeworth Butler*

Twelve books on training a good man skilled in speaking, from the nursery to the forum.

> Latin: ed. Harold Edgeworth Butler, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-latinLit, phi1002.phi001, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: Harold Edgeworth Butler, from the Perseus Digital Library (phi1002.phi001.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 2. Book I · chapters 2–5

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/2/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/2/#p-N

[¶0] 2.9. I now turn to the objection that one master can live more attention to one pupil. In the first place there is nothing to prevent the principle of “one teacher, one boy ” being combined with school education. And even if such a combination should prove impossible, I should still prefer the broad daylight of a respectable school to the solitude and obscurity of a private education. For all the best teachers pride themselves on having a large number of pupils and think themselves worthy of a bigger audience.

> Latin: 2.9. in studiis magis vacabit unus uni. omnia nihil prohibet esse illum nescio quem unum etiam cum eo, qui in scholis eruditur. etiamsi iungi utrumque non posset, lumen tamen illud conventus honestissimi tenebris ac solitudini praetulissem. optimus quisque praeceptor frequentia gaudet ac maiore se theatro dignum putat.

[¶1] 2.10. On the other hand in the case of inferior teachers a consciousness of their own defects not seldom reconciles them to being attached to a single pupil and playing the part—for it amounts to little more—of a mere paedagogus.

> Latin: 2.10. fere minores ex conscientia suae infirmitatis haerere singulis et officio fungi quodam modo paedagogorum non indignantur.

[¶2] 2.11. But let us assume that influence, money or friendship succeed in securing a paragon of learning to teach the boy at home. Will he be able to devote the whole day to one pupil? Or can we demand such continuous attention on the part of the learner? The mind is as easily tired as the eye, if given no relaxation. Moreover by far the larger proportion of the learner's time ought to be devoted to private study.

> Latin: 2.11. praestat alicui vel gratia vel pecunia vel amicitia, ut doctissimum atque incomparabilem magistrum domi habeat: num tamen ille totum in uno diem consumpturus est? aut potest esse ulla tam perpetua discentis intentio, quae non ut visus oculorum obtutu continuo fatigetur? cum praesertim multo plus secreti temporis studia desiderent.

[¶3] 2.12. The teacher does not stand over him while he is writing or thinking or learning by heart. While he is so occupied the intervention of anyone, be he who he may, is a hindrance. Further, not all reading requires to be first read aloud or interpreted by a master. If it did, how would the boy ever become acquainted with all the authors required of him? A small time only is required to give purpose and direction to the day's work, and consequently individual instruction can be given to more than one pupil.

> Latin: 2.12. enim scribenti, ediscenti, cogitanti praeceptor adsistit, quorum aliquid agentibus cuiuscunque interventus impedimento est. quoque non omnis nec semper praeeunte vel interpretante eget. enim tot auctorum notitia contingeret? ergo tempus est, quo in totum diem velut opus ordinetur ideoque per plures ire possunt etiam quae singuli tradenda sunt.

[¶4] 2.13. There are moreover a large number of subjects in which it is desirable that instruction should be given to all the pupils simultaneously. I say nothing of the analyses and declamations of the professors of rhetoric: in such cases there is no limit to the number of the audience, as each individual pupil will in any case receive full value.

> Latin: 2.13. vero hanc condicionem habent, ut eadem voce ad omnes simul perferantur Taceo de partitionibus et declamationibus rhetorum quibus certe quantuscunque numerus adhibeatur, tamen unusquisque totum feret.

[¶5] 2.14. The voice of a lecturer is not like a dinner which will only suffice for a limited number; it is like the sun which distributes the same quantity of light and heat to all of us. So too with the teacher of literature. Whether he speak of style or expound disputed passages, explain stories or paraphrase poems, everyone who hears him will profit by his teaching.

> Latin: 2.14. enim vox illa praeceptoris ut cena minus pluribus sufficit, sed ut sol universis idem lucis calorisque largitur. quoque si de loquendi ratione disserat, si quaestiones explicet, historias exponat, poemata enarret, tot illa discent quot audient.

[¶6] 2.15. But, it will be urged, a large class is unsuitable for the correction of faults or for explanation. It may be inconvenient: one cannot hope for absolute perfection; but I shall shortly contrast the inconvenience with the obvious advantages. Still I do not wish a boy to be sent where he will be neglected. But a good teacher will not burden himself with a larger number of pupils than he can manage, and it is further of the very first importance that he should be on friendly and intimate terms with us and make his teaching not a duty but a labour of love. Then there will never be any question of being swamped by the number of our fellow-learners.

> Latin: 2.15. enim emendationi praelectionique numerus obstat. incommodum, (nam quid fere undique placet?) mox illud comparabimus commodis. ego tamen eo mitti puerum volo, ubi negligatur. neque praeceptor bonus maiore se turba, quam ut sustinere eam possit, oneraverit; et in primis ea habenda cura est, ut is omni modo fiat nobis familiariter amicus, nec officium in docendo spectet sed adfectum.

[¶7] 2.16. Moreover any teacher who has the least tincture of literary culture will devote special attention to any boy who shows signs of industry and talent; for such a pupil will redound to his own credit. But even if large schools are to be avoided, a proposition from which I must dissent if the size be due to the excellence of the teacher, it does not follow that all schools are to be avoided. It is one thing to avoid them, another to select the best.

> Latin: 2.16. nunquam erimus in turba. sane quisquam litteris saltem leviter imbutus eum, in quo studium ingeniumque perspexerit, non in suam quoque gloriam peculiariter fovebit. ut fugiendae sint magnae scholae (cui ne ipsi quidem rei adsentior, si ad aliquem merito concurritur), non tamen hoc eo valet, ut fugiendae sint omnino scholae. est enim vitare eas, aliud eligere.

[¶8] 2.17. Having refuted these objections, let me now explain my own views.

> Latin: 2.17. si refutavimus quae contra dicuntur, iam explicemus, quid ipsi sequamur.

[¶9] 2.18. It is above all things necessary that our future orator, who will have to live in the utmost publicity and in the broad daylight of public life, should become accustomed from his childhood to move in society without fear and habituated to a life far removed from that of the pale student, the solitary and recluse. His mind requires constant stimulus and excitement, whereas retirement such as has just been mentioned induces languor and the mind becomes mildewed like things that are left in the dark, or else flies to the opposite extreme and becomes puffed up with empty conceit; for he who has no standard of comparison by which to judge his own powers will necessarily rate them too high.

> Latin: 2.18. omnia futurus orator, cui in maxima celebritate et in media rei publicae luce vivendum est, adsuescat iam a tenero non reformidare homines neque illa solitaria et velut umbratica vita pallescere. mens et adtollenda semper est, quae in eiusmodi secretis aut languescit et quendam velut in opaco situm ducit, aut contra tumescit inani persuasione; necesse est enim nimium tribuat sibi, qui se nemini comparat.

[¶10] 2.19. Again when the fruits of his study have to be displayed to the public gaze, our recluse is blinded by the sun's glare, and finds everything new and unfamiliar, for though he has learnt what is required to be done in public, his learning is but the theory of a hermit.

> Latin: 2.19. cum proferenda sunt studia, caligat in sole et omnia nova offendit, ut qui solus didicerit quod inter multos faciendum est.

[¶11] 2.20. I say nothing of friendships which endure unbroken to old age having acquired the binding force of a sacred duty: for initiation in the same studies has all the sanctity of initiation in the same mysteries of religion. And where shall he acquire that instinct which we call common feeling, if he secludes himself from that intercourse which is natural not merely to mankind but even to dumb animals?

> Latin: 2.20. amicitias, quae ad senectutem usque firmissime durant religiosa quadam necessitudine imbutae. enim est sanctius sacris iisdem quam studiis initiari. ipsum, qui communis dicitur, ubi discet, cum se a congressu, qui non hominibus solum sed mutis quoque animalibus naturalis est, segregarit?

[¶12] 2.21. Further, at home he can only learn what is taught to himself, while at school he will learn what is taught others as well. He will hear many merits praised and many faults corrected every day: he will derive equal profit from hearing the indolence of a comrade rebuked or his industry commended.

> Latin: 2.21. quod domi ea sola discere potest, quae ipsi praecipientur, in schola etiam quae aliis. multa cotidie probari, multa corrigi; proderit alicuius obiurgata desidia, proderit laudata industria, excitabitur laude aemulatio, turpe ducet cedere pari, pulchrum superasse maiores.

[¶13] 2.22. Such praise will incite him to emulation, he will think it a disgrace to be outdone by his contemporaries and a distinction to surpass his seniors. All such incentives provide a valuable stimulus, and though ambition may be a fault in itself, it is often the mother of virtues.

> Latin: 2.22. omnia haec animos, et licet ipsa vitium sit ambitio, frequenter tamen causa virtutum est.

[¶14] 2.23. I remember that my own masters had a practice which was not without advantages. Having distributed the boys in classes, they made the order in which they were to speak depend on their ability, so that the boy who had made most progress in his studies had the privilege of declaiming first.

> Latin: 2.23. inutilem scio servatum esse a praeceptoribus meis morem, qui, cum pueros in classes distribuerant, ordinem dicendi secundum vires ingenii dabant; et ita superiore loco quisque declamabat, ut praecedere profectu videbatur.

[¶15] 2.24. The performances on these occasions were criticised. To win commendation was a tremendous honour, but the prize most eagerly coveted was to be the leader of the class. Such a position was not permanent. Once a month the defeated competitors were given a fresh opportunity of competing for the prize. Consequently success did not lead the victor to relax his efforts, while the vexation caused by defeat served as an incentive to wipe out the disgrace.

> Latin: 2.24. rei iudicia praebebantur; ea nobis ingens palma, ducere vero classem multo pulcherrimum. de hoc semel decretum erat; tricesimus dies reddebat victo certaminis potestatem. nec superior successu curam remittebat et dolor victum ad depellendam ignominiam concitabat.

[¶16] 2.25. I will venture to assert that to the best of my memory this practice did more to kindle our oratorical ambitions than all the exhortations of our instructors, the watchfulness of our paedagogi and the prayers of our parents.

> Latin: 2.25. nobis acriores ad studia dicendi faces subdidisse quam exhortationem docentium, paedagogorum custodiam, vota parentum, quantum animi mei coniectura colligere possum, contenderim.

[¶17] 2.26. Further while emulation promotes progress in the more advanced pupils, beginners who are still of tender years derive greater pleasure from imitating their comrades than their masters, just because it is easier. For children still in the elementary stages of education can scarce dare hope to reach that complete eloquence which they understand to be their goal: their ambition will not soar so high, but they will imitate the vine which has to grasp the lower branches of the tree on which it is trained before it can reach the topmost boughs.

> Latin: 2.26. sicut firmiores in litteris profectus alit aemulatio, ita incipientibus atque adhuc teneris condiscipulorum quam praeceptoris iucundior hoc ipso quod facilior imitatio est. enim se prima elementa ad spem tollere effingendae, quam summam putant, eloquentiae audebunt; proxima amplectentur magis, ut vites arboribus applicitae inferiores prius apprehendendo ramos in cacumina evadunt.

[¶18] 2.27. So true is this that it is the master's duty as well, if he is engaged on the task of training unformed minds and prefers practical utility to a more ambitious programme, not to burden his pupils at once with tasks to which their strength is unequal, but to curb his energies and refrain from talking over the heads of his audience.

> Latin: 2.27. adeo verum est, ut ipsius etiam magistri, si tamen ambitiosis utilia praeferet, hoc opus sit, cum adhuc rudia tractabit ingenia, non statim onerare infirmitatem discentium, sed temperare vires suas et ad intellectum audientis descendere.

[¶19] 2.28. Vessels with narrow mouths will not receive liquids if too much be poured into them at a time, but are easily filled if the liquid is admitted in a gentle stream or, it may be, drop by drop; similarly you must consider how much a child's mind is capable of receiving: the things which are beyond their grasp will not enter their minds, which have not opened out sufficiently to take them in.

> Latin: 2.28. ut vascula oris angusti superfusam humoris copiam respuunt, sensim autem influentibus vel etiam instillatis complentur, sic animi puerorum quantum excipere possint videndum est. maiora intellectu velut parum apertos ad percipiendum animos non subibunt.

[¶20] 2.29. It is a good thing therefore that a boy should have companions whom he will desire first to imitate and then to surpass: thus he will be led to aspire to higher achievement. I would add that the instructors themselves cannot develop the same intelligence and energy before a single listener as they can when inspired by the presence of a numerous audience.

> Latin: 2.29. igitur habere, quos imitari primum, mox vincere velis. paulatim et superiorum spes erit. adiicio, praeceptores ipsos non idem mentis ac spiritus in dicendo posse concipere singulis tantum praesentibus quod illa celebritate audientium instinctos.

[¶21] 2.30. For eloquence depends in the main on the state of the mind, which must be moved, conceive images and adapt itself to suit the nature of the subject which is the theme of speech. Further the loftier and the more elevated the mind, the more powerful will be the forces which move it: consequently praise gives it growth and effort increase, and the thought that it is doing something great fills it with joy.

> Latin: 2.30. enim pars eloquentiae constat animo. adfici, hunc concipere imagines rerum et transformari quodammodo ad naturam eorum, de quibus loquimur, necesse est. porro, quo generosior celsiorque est, hoc maioribus velut organis commovetur; ideoque et laude crescit et impetu augetur et aliquid magnum agere gaudet.

[¶22] 2.31. The duty of stooping to expend that power of speaking which has been acquired at the cost of such effort upon an audience of one gives rise to a silent feeling of disdain, and the teacher is ashamed to raise his voice above the ordinary conversational level. Imagine the air of a declaimer, or the voice of an orator, his gait, his delivery, the movements of his body, the emotions of his mind, and, to go no further, the fatigue of his exertions, all for the sake of one listener! Would he not seem little less than a lunatic? No, there would be no such thing as eloquence, if we spoke only with one person at a time.

> Latin: 2.31. quaedam tacita dedignatio, vim dicendi tantis comparatam laboribus ad unum auditorem demittere: pudet supra modum sermonis attolli. sane concipiat quis mente vel declamantis habitum vel orantis vocem, incessum, pronuntiationem, illum denique animi et corporis motum, sudorem, ut alia praeteream, et fatigationem, audiente uno: nonne quiddam pati furori simile videatur? esset in rebus humanis eloquentia, si tantum cum singulis loqueremur.

[¶23] 3.1. The skilful teacher will make it his first care, as soon as a boy is entrusted to him, to ascertain his ability and character. The surest indication in a child is his power of memory. The characteristics of a good memory are twofold: it must be quick to take in and faithful to retain impressions of what it receives. The indication of next importance is the power of imitation: for this is a sign that the child is teachable: but he must imitate merely what he is taught, and must not, for example, mimic someone's gait or bearing or defects.

> Latin: 3.1. sibi puero docendi peritus ingenium eius in primis naturamque perspiciet. signum in parvis praecipuum memoria est. duplex virtus, facile percipere et fideliter continere. imitatio; nam id quoque est docilis naturae, sic tamen, ut ea quae discit effingat, non habitum forte et ingressum et si quid in peius notabile est.

[¶24] 3.2. For I have no hope that a child will turn out well who loves imitation merely for the purpose of raising a laugh. He who is really gifted will also above all else be good. For the rest, I regard slowness of intellect as preferable to actual badness. But a good boy will be quite unlike the dullard and the sloth.

> Latin: 3.2. dabit mihi spem bonae indolis, qui hoc imitandi studio petet, ut rideatur. probus quoque in primis erit ille vere ingeniosus; alioqui non peius duxerim tardi esse ingenii quam mali. autem ab illo segni et iacente plurimum aberit.

[¶25] 3.3. My ideal pupil will absorb instruction with ease and will even ask some questions; but he will follow rather than anticipate his teacher. Precocious intellects rarely produce sound fruit.

> Latin: 3.3. meus quae tradentur non difficulter accipiet, quaedam etiam interrogabit, sequetur tamen magis quam praecurret. ingeniorum velut praecox genus non temere unquam pervenit ad frugem.

[¶26] 3.4. By the precocious I mean those who perform small tasks with ease and, thus emboldened, proceed to display all their little accomplishments without being asked: but their accomplishments are only of the most obvious kind: they string words together and trot them out boldly and undeterred by the slightest sense of modesty. Their actual achievement is small, but what they can do they perform with ease.

> Latin: 3.4. sunt, qui parva facile faciunt et audacia provecti, quidquid illud possunt, statim ostendunt. autem id demum, quod in proximo est; verba continuant, haec vultu interrito, nulla tardati verecundia proferunt. multum praestant sed cito.

[¶27] 3.5. They have no real power and what they have is but of shallow growth: it is as when we cast seed on the surface of the soil: it springs up too rapidly, the blade apes the loaded ear, and yellows ere harvest time, but bears no grain. Such tricks please us when we contrast them with the performer's age, but progress soon stops and our admiration withers away.

> Latin: 3.5. subest vera vis nec penitus immissis radicibus nititur; ut, quae summo solo sparsa sunt semina, celerius se effundunt, et imitatae spicas herbulae inanibus aristis ante messem flavescunt. haec annis comparata; deinde stat profectus, admiratio decrescit.

[¶28] 3.6. Such indications once noted, the teacher must next consider what treatment is to be applied to the mind of his pupil. There are some boys who are slack, unless pressed on; others again are impatient of control: some are amenable to fear, while others are paralysed by it: in some cases the mind requires continued application to form it, in others this result is best obtained by rapid concentration. Give me the boy who is spurred on by praise, delighted by success and ready to weep over failure.

> Latin: 3.6. cum animadverterit, perspiciat deinceps, quonam modo tractandus sit discentis animus. quidam, nisi institeris, remissi, quidam imperia indignantur. quosdam continet metus, quosdam debilitat, alios continuatio extundit, in aliis plus impetus facit.

[¶29] 3.7. Such an one must be encouraged by appeals to his ambition; rebuke will bite him to the quick; honour will be a spur, and there is no fear of his proving indolent.

> Latin: 3.7. ille detur puer, quem laus excitet, quem gloria iuvet, qui victus fleat. erit alendus ambitu, hunc mordebit obiurgatio, hunc honor excitabit, in hoc desidiam nunquam verebor.

[¶30] 3.8. Still, all our pupils will require some relaxation, not merely because there is nothing in this world that can stand continued strain and even unthinking and inanimate objects are unable to maintain their strength, unless given intervals of rest, but because study depends on the good will of the student, a quality that cannot be secured by compulsion.

> Latin: 3.8. est tamen omnibus aliqua remissio; non solum quia nulla res est, quae perferre possit continuum laborem, atque ea quoque, quae sensu et anima carent, ut servare vim suam possint, velut quiete alterna retenduntur; sed quod studium discendi voluntate, quae cogi non potest, constat.

[¶31] 3.9. Consequently if restored and refreshed by a holiday they will bring greater energy to their learning and approach their work with greater spirit of a kind that will not submit to be driven.

> Latin: 3.9. et virium plus adferunt ad discendum renovati ac recentes et acriorem animum, qui fere necessitatibus repugnat.

[¶32] 3.10. I approve of play in the young; it is a sign of a lively disposition; nor will you ever lead me to believe that a boy who is gloomy and in a continual state of depression is ever likely to show alertness of mind in his work, lacking as he does the impulse most natural to boys of his age.

> Latin: 3.10. me offenderit lusus in pueris; est et hoc signum alacritatis; neque illum tristem semperque demissum sperare possim erectae circa studia mentis fore, cum in hoc quoque maxime naturali aetatibus illis impetu iaceat.

[¶33] 3.11. Such relaxation must not however be unlimited: otherwise the refusal to give a holiday will make boys hate their work, while excessive indulgence will accustom them to idleness. There are moreover certain games which have an educational value for boys, as for instance when they compete in posing each other with all kinds of questions which they ask turn and turn about.

> Latin: 3.11. tamen sit remissionibus, ne aut odium studiorum faciant negatae aut otii consuetudinem nimiae. etiam nonnulli acuendis puerorum ingeniis non inutiles lusus, cum positis invicem cuiusque generis quaestiunculis aemulantur.

[¶34] 3.12. Games too reveal character in the most natural way, at least that is so if the teacher will bear in mind that there is no child so young as to be unable to learn to distinguish between right and wrong, and that the character is best moulded, when it is still guiltless of deceit and most susceptible to instruction: for once a bad habit has become engrained, it is easier to break than bend.

> Latin: 3.12. quoque se inter ludendum simplicius detegunt; modo nulla videatur aetas tam infirma, quae non protinus quid rectum pravumque sit discat, tum vel maxime formanda, cum simulandi nescia est et praecipientibus facillime cedit. enim citius quam corrigas, quae in pravum induruerunt.

[¶35] 3.13. There must be no delay, then, in warning a boy that his actions must be unselfish, honest, self-controlled, and we must never forget the words of Virgil,
So strong is custom formed in early years.
I disapprove of flogging, although it is the regular custom and meets with the acquiescence of Chrysippus, because in the first place it is a disgraceful form of punishment and fit only for slaves, and is in any case an insult, as you will realise if you imagine its infliction at a later age.

> Latin: 3.13. ergo, ne quid cupide, ne quid improbe, ne quid impotenter faciat, monendus est puer; habendumque in animo semper illud Vergilianum:
in teneris consuescere multum est.
Caedi vero discentes, quamlibet et receptum sit et Chrysippus non improbet, minime velim., quia deforme atque servile est et certe, (quod convenit, si aetatem mutes), iniuria est;

[¶36] 3.14. Secondly if a boy is so insensible to instruction that reproof is useless, he will, like the worst type of slave, merely become hardened to blows. Finally there will be absolutely no need of such punishment if the master is a thorough disciplinarian.

> Latin: 3.14. deinde, quod, si cui tam est mens illiberalis, ut obiurgatione non corrigatur, is etiam ad plagas ut pessima quaeque mancipia durabitur: postremo, quod ne opus erit quidem hac castigatione, si assiduus studiorum exactor astiterit.

[¶37] 3.15. As it is, we try to make amends for the negligence of the boy's paedagogus, not by forcing him to do what is right, but by punishing him for not doing what is right. And though you may compel a child with blows, what are you to do with him when he is a young man no longer amenable to such threats and confronted with tasks of far greater difficulty?

> Latin: 3.15. fere negligentia paedagogorum sic emendari videtur, ut pueri non facere, quae recta sunt, cogantur sed cur non fecerint puniantur. cum parvulum verberibus coegeris, quid iuveni facias, cui nec adhiberi potest hic metus et maiora discenda sunt?

[¶38] 3.16. Moreover when children are beaten, pain or fear frequently have results of which it is not pleasant to speak and which are likely subsequently to be a source of shame, a shame which unnerves and depresses the mind and leads the child to shun and loathe the light.

> Latin: 3.16. , quod multa vapulantibus dictu deformia et mox verecundiae futura saepe dolore vel metu acciderunt, qui pudor frangit animum et abiicit atque ipsius lucis fugam et taedium dictat.

[¶39] 3.17. Further if inadequate care is taken in the choices of respectable governors and instructors, I blush to mention the shameful abuse which scoundrels sometimes make of their right to administer corporal punishment or the opportunity not infrequently offered to others by the fear thus caused in the victims. I will not linger on this subject; it is more than enough if I have made my meaning clear. I will content myself with saying that children are helpless and easily victimised, and that therefore no one should be given unlimited power over them.

> Latin: 3.17. si minor in eligendis custodum vel praeceptorum moribus fuit cura, pudet dicere, in quae probra nefandi homines isto caedendi iure abutantur, quam det allis quoque nonnunquam occasionem hic miserorum metus. morabor in parte hac; nimium est quod intelligitur. hoc dixisse satis est; in aetatem infirmam et iniuriae obnoxiam nemini debet nimium licere.

[¶40] 3.18. I will now proceed to describe the subjects in which the boy must be trained, if he is to become an orator, and to indicate the age at which each should be commenced.

> Latin: 3.18. quibus instituendus sit artibus, qui sic formabitur, ut fieri possit orator, et quae in quaque aetate inchoanda, dicere ingrediar.

[¶41] 4.1. As soon as the boy has learned to read and write without difficulty, it is the turn for the teacher of literature. My words apply equally to Greek and Latin masters, though I prefer that a start should be made with a Greek:

> Latin: 4.1. in eo, qui scribendi legendique adeptus erit facultatem, grammatici est locus. refert, de Graeco an de Latino loquar, quanquam Graecum esse priorem placet.

[¶42] 4.2. in either case the method is the same. This profession may be most briefly considered under two heads, the art of speaking correctly and the interpretation of the poets; but there is more beneath the surface than meets the eye.

> Latin: 4.2. eadem via est. igitur professio, cum brevissime in duas partes dividatur, recte loquendi scientiam et poetarum enarrationem, plus habet in recessu quam fronte promittit.

[¶43] 4.3. For the art of writing is combined with that of speaking, and correct reading precedes interpretation, while in each of these cases criticism has its work to perform. The old school of teachers indeed carried their criticism so far that they were not content with obelising lines or rejecting books whose titles they regarded as spurious, as though they were expelling a supposititious child from the family circle, but also drew up a canon of authors, from which some were omitted altogether.

> Latin: 4.3. et scribendi ratio coniuncta cum loquendo est, et enarrationem praecedit emendata lectio, et mixtum his omnibus iudicium est; quo quidem ita severe sunt usi veteres grammatici, ut non versus modo censoria quadam virgula notare et libros, qui falso viderentur inscripti, tanquam subditos summovere familia permiserint sibi, sed auctores alios in ordinem redegerint, alios omnino exemerint numero.

[¶44] 4.4. Nor is it sufficient to have read the poets only; every kind of writer must be carefully studied, not merely for the subject matter, but for the vocabulary; for words often acquire authority from their use by a particular author. Nor can such training be regarded as complete if it stop short of music, for the teacher of literature has to speak of metre and rhythm: nor again if he be ignorant of astronomy, can he understand the poets; for they, to mention no further points, frequently give their indications of time by reference to the rising and setting of the stars. Ignorance of philosophy is an equal drawback, since there are numerous passages in almost every poem based on the most intricate questions of natural philosophy, while among the Greeks we have Empedocles and among our own poets Varro and Lucretius, all of whom have expounded their philosophies in verse.

> Latin: 4.4. poetas legisse satis est: excutiendum omne scriptorum genus non propter historias modo sed verba, quae frequenter ius ab auctoribus sumunt. neque citra musicen grammatice potest esse perfecta, cum ei de metris rhythmisque dicendum sit, nec, si rationem siderum ignoret, poetas intelligat, qui (ut alia omittam) totiens ortu occasuque signorum in declarandis temporibus utantur; nec ignara philosophiae, cum propter plurimos in omnibus fere carminibus locos ex intima naturalium quaestionum subtilitate repetitos, tum vel propter Empedoclea in Graecis, Varronem ac Lucretium in Latinis, qui praecepta sapientiae versibus tradiderunt.

[¶45] 4.5. No small powers of eloquence also are required to enable the teacher to speak appropriately and fluently on the various points which have just been mentioned. For this reason those who criticise the art of teaching literature as trivial and lacking in substance put themselves out of court. Unless the foundations of oratory are well and truly laid by the teaching of literature, the superstructure will collapse. The study of literature is a necessity for boys and the delight of old age, the sweet companion of our privacy and the sole branch of study which has more solid substance than display.

> Latin: 4.5. quoque non mediocri est opus, ut de unaquaque earum, quas demonstravimus, rerum dicat proprie et copiose. minus sunt ferendi, qui hanc artem ut tenuem atque ieiunam cavillantur, quae nisi oratoris futuri fundamenta fideliter iecit, quidquid superstruxeris, corruet; necessaria pueris, iucunda senibus, dulcis secretorum comes et quae vel sola in omni studiorum genere plus habeat operis quam ostentationis.

[¶46] 4.6. The elementary stages of the teaching of literature must not therefore be despised as trivial. It is of course an easy task to point out the difference between vowels and consonants, and to subdivide the latter into semivowels and mutes. But as the pupil gradually approaches the inner shrine of the sacred place, he will come to realise the intricacy of the subject, an intricacy calculated not merely to sharpen the wits of a boy, but to exercise even the most profound knowledge and erudition.

> Latin: 4.6. quis igitur tanquam parva fastidiat grammatices elementa, non quia magnae sit operae consonantes a vocalibus discernere ipsasque eas in semivocalium numerum mutarumque partiri, sed quia interiora velut sacri huius adeuntibus apparebit multa rerum subtilitas, quae non modo acuere ingenia puerilia sed exercere altissimam quoque eruditionem ac scientiam possit.

[¶47] 4.7. It is not every ear that can appreciate the correct sound of the different letters. It is fully as hard as to distinguish the different notes in music. But all teachers of literature will condescend to such minutiae: they will discuss for instance whether certain necessary letters are absent from the alphabet, not indeed when we are writing Greek words (for then we borrow two letters from them), but in the case of genuine Latin words:

> Latin: 4.7. cuiuslibet auris est exigere litterarum sonos? non hercule magis quam nervorum. grammatici saltem omnes in hanc descendent rerum tenuitatem, desintne aliquae nobis necessariae litterarum, non cum Graeca scribimus (tum enim ab iisdem duas mutuamur) sed propriae, in Latinis, ut in his seruus et uulgus Aeolicum digammon desideratur, et medius est quidam V et I litterae sonus;

[¶48] 4.8. for example in words such as seruus and uulgus we feel the lack of the Aeolic digamma; there is also a sound intermediate between u and i, for we do not pronounce optimum as we do opimum, while in here the sound is neither exactly e or i.

> Latin: 4.8. non enim sic optimum dicimus ut opimum, et in here neque E plane neque I auditur;

[¶49] 4.9. Again there is the question whether certain letters are not superfluous, not to mention the mark of the aspirate, to which, if it is required at all, there should be a corresponding symbol to indicate the opposite: for instance k, which is also used as an abbreviation for certain nouns, and q, which, though slanted slightly more by us, resembles both in sound and shape the Greek koppa, now used by the Greeks solely as a numerical sign: there is also x, the last letter of our own alphabet, which we could dispense with as easily as with psi.

> Latin: 4.9. an rursus aliae redundent, praeter notam aspirationis, (quae si necessaria est, etiam contrariam sibi poscit) ut K, quae et ipsa quorundam nominum nota est, et Q, cuius similis effectu specieque, nisi quod paulum a nostris obliquatur, Coppa apud Graecos nunc tantum in numero manet, et nostrarum ultima, qua tam carere potuimus quam ψ non quaerimus?

[¶50] 4.10. Again the teacher of literature will have to determine whether certain vowels have not been consonantalised. For instance iam and etiam are both spelt with an i, uos and tuos both with a u. Vowels, however, when joined as vowels, either make one long vowel (compare the obsolete method of indicating a long vowel by doubling it as the equivalent of the circumflex), or a diphthong, though some hold that even three vowels can form a single syllable; this however is only possible if one or more assume the role of consonants.

> Latin: 4.10. etiam in ipsis vocalibus grammatici est videre, an aliquas pro consonantibus usus acceperit, quia iam sicut etiam scribitur et nos ut luos. At quae ut vocales iunguntur aut unam longam faciunt, ut veteres scripserunt qui geminatione earum velut apice utebantur, aut duas; nisi quis putat etiam ex tribus vocalibus syllabam fieri, si non aliquae officio consonantium fungantur.

[¶51] 4.11. He will also inquire why it is that there are two vowels which may be repeated, while a consonant can only be followed and modified by a different consonant. But i can follow i (for coniicit is derived from iacit ): so too does u, witness the modern spelling of seruus and uulgus. He should also know that Cicero preferred to write aiio and Maaiiam with a double i; in that case one of them is consonantalised.

> Latin: 4.11. hoc etiam, quomodo duabus demum vocalibus in se ipsas coeundi natura sit, cum consonantium nulla nisi alteram frangat. littera I sibi insidit, coniicit enim est ab illo iacit, et V, quomodo nunc scribitur uulgus et seruus. etiam Ciceroni placuisse aiio Maiiamque geminata I scribere; quod si est, etiam iungetur ut consonans.

[¶52] 4.12. A boy therefore must learn both the peculiarities and the common characteristics of letters and must know how they are related to each other. Nor must he be surprised that scabillum is formed from scamnus or that a double-edged axe should be called bipennis from pinnus, “sharp”: for I would not have him fall into the same error as those who, supposing this word to be derived from his and pennae, think that it is a metaphor from the wings of birds.

> Latin: 4.12. discat puer, quid in litteris proprium, quid commune, quae cum quibus cognatio; nec miretur, cur ex scamno fiat scabillum aut a pinno (quod est acutum) securis utrinque habens aciem bipennis; ne illorum sequatur errorem, qui, quia a pennis duabus hoc esse nomen existimant, pennas avium dici volunt.

[¶53] 4.13. He must not be content with knowing only those changes introduced by conjugation and prefixes, such as secat secuit, cadit excidit, caedit excīdit, calcat exculcat, to which might be added lotus from lauare and again inlotus with a thousand others. He must learn as well the changes that time has brought about even in nominatives. For just as names like Valesius and Fusius have become Valerius and Furius, so arbos, labos, vapos and even clamos and lases were the original forms.

> Latin: 4.13. has modo noverit mutationes, quas adferunt declinatio aut praepositio, ut secat secuit, cadit excidit, caedit excidit, calcat exculcat (et fit a lavando lotus et inde rursus inlutus et mille talia), sed quae rectis quoque casibus aetate transierunt. ut Valesii Fusii in Valerios Furiosque venerunt: ita arbos, labos, vapos etiam et clamos ac lases fuerunt.

[¶54] 4.14. And this same letter s, which has disappeared from these words, has itself in some cases taken the place of another letter. For our ancestors used to say mertare and pultare. They also said fordeum and faedi, using f instead of the aspirate as being a kindred letter. For the Greeks unlike us aspirate f like their own phi, as Cicero bears witness in the pro Fundanio, where he laughs at a witness who is unable to pronounce the first letter of that name.

> Latin: 4.14. haec ipsa S littera ab his nominibus exclusa in quibusdam ipsa alteri successit, nam mertare atque pultare dicebant, quin fordeum faedosque pro aspiratione F velut simili littera utentes; nam contra Graeci aspirare F ut φ solent, ut pro Fundanio Cicero testem, qui primam eius litteram dicere non possit, irridet.

[¶55] 4.15. In some cases again we have substituted b for other letters, as with Burrus, Bruges, and Belena. The same letter too has turned duellum into bellum, and as a result some have ventured to call the Duelii Belii.

> Latin: 4.15. B quoque in locum aliarum dedimus aliquando, unde Burrus et Bruges et. non eadem fecit ex duello bellum, unde Duellios quidam dicere Bellios ausi.

[¶56] 4.16. What of stlocus and stlites? What of the connexion between t and d, a connexion which makes it less surprising that on some of the older buildings of Rome and certain famous temples we should find the names Alexanter and Cassantra? What again of the interchange of o and u, of which examples may be found in Hecoba, notrix, Culcides and Pulixena, or to take purely Latin words dederont and probaueront? So too Odysseus, which the Aeolian dialect turned into Ulysseus, has been transformed by us into Ulixes.

> Latin: 4.16. stlocum stlitesque? T litterae cum D quaedam cognatio? minus mirum, si in vetustis operibus urbis nostrae et celebribus templis legantur Alexanter et Cassantra. O atque V permutatae invicem, ut Hecoba et nutrix Culchidis et Pulixena scriberentur, ac, ne in Graecis id tantum notetur, dederont ac probaveront? Ὀδυσσεύς, quem Ὀλισσέα fecerant Aeolis, ad Ulixem deductus est.

[¶57] 4.17. Similarly e in certain cases held the place that is now occupied by i, as in Menerua, leber, magester, and Dioue victore in place of Dioui victori. It is sufficient for me to give a mere indication as regards these points, for I am not teaching, but merely advising those who have got to teach. The next subject to which attention must be given is that of syllables, of which I will speak briefly, when I come to deal with orthography. Following this the teacher concerned will note the number and nature of the parts of speech, although there is some dispute as to their number.

> Latin: 4.17. ? non E quoque I loco fuit? Μenerva et leber et magester et Diiove Victore non Diiovi Victori? mihi locum signare satis est, non enim doceo, sed admoneo docturos. in syllabas cura transibit, de quibus in orthographia pauca adnotabo. videbit, ad quem hoc pertinet, quot et quae partes orationis; quanquam de numero parum convenit.

[¶58] 4.18. Earlier writers, among them Aristotle himself and Theodectes, hold that there are but three, verbs, nouns and convictions. Their view was that the force of language resided in the verbs, and the matter in the nouns (for the one is what we speak, the other that which we speak about), while the duty of the convinctions was to provide a link between the nouns and the verbs. I know that conjunction is the term in general use. But conviction seems to me to be the more accurate translation of the Greek.

> Latin: 4.18. enim, quorum fuerunt Aristoteles quoque atque Theodectes, verba modo et nomina et convinctiones tradiderunt; videlicet quod in verbis vim sermonis, in nominibus materiam (quia alterum est quod loquimur, alterum de quo loquimur), in convinctionibus autem complexus eorum esse iudicaverunt: quas coniunctiones a plerisque dici scio, sed haec videtur ex συνδέσμῳ magis propria translatio.

[¶59] 4.19. Gradually the number was increased by the philosophers, more especially by the Stoics: articles were first added to the convinctions, then prepositions: to nouns appellations were added, then the pronoun and finally the participle, which holds a middle position between the verb and the noun. To the verb itself was added the adverb. Our own language dispenses with the articles, which are therefore distributed among the other parts of speech.

> Latin: 4.19. a philosophis ac maxime Stoicis auctus est numerus, ac primum convinctionibus articuli adiecti, post praepositiones, nominibus appellatio, deinde pronomen, deinde mixtum verbo participium, ipsis verbis adverbia. sermo articulos non desiderat, ideoque in alias partes orationis sparguntur, sed accedit superioribus interiectio.

[¶60] 4.20. But interjections must be added to those already mentioned. Others however follow good authority in asserting that there are eight parts of speech. Among these I may mention Aristarchus and in our own day Palaemon, who classified the vocable or appellation as a species of the genus noun. Those on the other hand who distinguish between the noun and the vocable, make nine parts of speech. But yet again there are some who differentiate between the vocable and the appellation, saying that the vocable indicates concrete objects which can be seen and touched, such as a “house” or “bed,” while an appellation is something imperceptible either to sight or touch or to both, such as the “wind,” “heaven,” or “virtue.” They added also the asseveration, such as “alas” and the derivative such as fasciatim. But of these classifications I do not approve.

> Latin: 4.20. tamen ex idoneis dumtaxat auctoribus octo partes secuti sunt ut Aristarchus et aetate nostra Palaemon, qui vocabulum sive appellationem nomini subiecerunt tanquam speciem eius. ii, qui aliud nomen aliud vocabulum faciunt, novem. fuerunt, qui ipsum adhuc vocabulum ab appellatione deducerent, ut esset vocabulum corpus visu tactuque manifestum, domus, lectus, appellatio, cui vel alterum deesset vel utrumque, ventus, caelum, deus, virtus. et asseverationem ut eheu, et tractationem ut fasciatim; quae mihi non approbantur.

[¶61] 4.21. Whether we should translate προσηγορία by vocable or appellation, and whether it should be regarded as a species of noun, I leave to the decision of such as desire to express their opinion: it is a matter of no importance.

> Latin: 4.21. an appellatio dicenda sit προσηγορία et subiicienda nomini necne, quia parvi refert, liberum opinaturis relinquo.

[¶62] 4.22. Boys should begin by learning to decline nouns and conjugate verbs: otherwise they will never be able to understand the next subject of study. This admonition would be superfluous but for the fact that most teachers, misled by a desire to show rapid progress, begin with what should really come at the end: their passion for displaying their pupils' talents in connexion with the more imposing aspects of their work serves but to delay progress and their short cut to knowledge merely lengthens the journey.

> Latin: 4.22. declinare et verba in primis pueri sciant, neque enim aliter pervenire ad intellectum sequentium possunt; quod etiam monere supervacuum erat, nisi ambitiosa festinatione plerique a posterioribus inciperent et, dum ostentare discipulos circa speciosiora malunt, compendio morarentur.

[¶63] 4.23. And yet a teacher who has acquired sufficient knowledge himself and is ready to teach what he has learned—and such readiness is all too rare—will not be content with stating that nouns have three genders or with mentioning those which are common to two or all three together.

> Latin: 4.23. si quis et didicerit satis et (quod non minus deesse interim solet) voluerit docere quae didicit, non erit contentus tradere in nominibus tria genera et quae sunt duobus omnibusve communia.

[¶64] 4.24. Nor again shall I be in a hurry to regard it as a proof of real diligence, if he points out that there are irregular nouns of the kind called epicene by the Greeks, in which one gender implies both, or which in spite of being feminine or neuter in form indicate males or females respectively, as for instance Muraena and Glycerium.

> Latin: 4.24. statim diligentem putabo, qui promiscua, quae ἐπίκοινα dicuntur, ostenderit, in quibus sexus uterque per alterum apparet; aut quae feminina positione mares aut neutrali feminas significant, qualia sunt Murena et Glycerium.

[¶65] 4.25. A really keen and intelligent teacher will inquire into the origin of names derived from physical characteristics, such as Rufus or Longus, whenever their meaning is obscure, as in the case of Sulla, Burrus, Galba, Plautus, Pansa, Scaurus and the like; of names derived from accidents of birth such as Agrippa, Opiter, Cordus and Postumus, and again of names given after birth such as Vopiscus. Then there are names such as Cotta, Scipio, Laenas or Seranus, which originated in various ways.

> Latin: 4.25. ille praeceptor acer atque subtilis origines nominum, quae ex habitu corporis Rufos Longosque fecerunt; ubi erit aliud secretius, Sullae, Burri, Galbae, Plauti, Pansae, Scauri taliaque; et ex casu nascentium; hic Agrippa et Opiter et Cordus et Postumus erunt; et ex iis, quae post natos eveniunt, unde Vopiscus. Cottae, Scipiones, Laenates, Serani sunt ex variis causis.

[¶66] 4.26. It will also be found that names are frequently derived from races, places and many other causes. Further there are obsolete slave-names such as Marcipor or Publipor derived from the names of their owners. The teacher must also inquire whether there is not room for a sixth case in Greek and a seventh in Latin. For when I say “wounded by a spear,” the case is not a true ablative in Latin nor a true dative in Greek.

> Latin: 4.26. quoque ac loca et alia multa reperias inter nominum causas. servis iam intercidit illud genus, quod ducebatur a domino, unde Marcipores Publiporesque. etiam, sitne apud Graecos vis quaedam sexti casus et apud nos quoque septimi. cum dico hasta percussi, non utor ablativi natura; nec, si idem Graece dicam, dativi.

[¶67] 4.27. Again if we turn to verbs, who is so ill-educated as not to be familiar with their various kinds and qualities, their different persons and numbers. Such subjects belong to the elementary school and the rudiments of knowledge. Some, however, will find points undetermined by inflexion somewhat perplexing. For there are certain participles, about which there may be doubts as to whether they are really nouns or verbs, since their meaning varies with their use, as for example lectum and sapiens, while there are other verbs which resemble nouns, such as fraudator and nutritor.

> Latin: 4.27. in verbis quoque quis est adeo imperitus, ut ignoret genera et qualitates et personas et numeros? paene ista sunt ludi et trivialis scientiae. quosdam illa turbabunt, quae declinationibus non tenentur. et quaedam participia an verba an appellationes sint, dubitari potest, quia aliud alio loco valent, ut lectum et sapiens et quaedam verba appellationibus similia, ut fraudator, nutritor.

[¶68] 4.28. Again itur in antiquam silvam is a peculiar usage. For there is no subject to serve as a starting point: fletur is a similar example. The passive may be used in different ways as for instance in
panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi
“Meanwhile the house of almighty Olympus is opened.” and in
totis usque adeo turbatur agris.
There is such confusion in all the fields.
Yet a third usage is found in urbs habitatur, whence we get phrases such as campus curritur and mare navigatur. Pransus and potus have a meaning which does not correspond to their form. And what of those verbs which are only partially conjugated? Some (as for instance fero ) even suffer an entire change in the perfect. Others are used only in the third person, such as licet and piget, while some resemble nouns tending to acquire an adverbial meaning; for we say dictu and factu as we say noctu and diu, since these words are participial though quite different from dicto and facto.

> Latin: 4.28. itur in antiquam silvam nonne propriae cuiusdam rationis est? nam quod initium eius invenias? cui simile fletur. aliter, ut panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, aliter ut totis usque adeo turbatur agris. etiam quidam tertias modus, ut urbs habitatur, unde et campus curritur, mare navigator. quoque ac potus diversum valet quam indicat.? quod multa verba non totum declinationis ordinem ferunt? etiam mutantur ut fero in praeterito, quaedam tertiae demum personae figura dicuntur ut licet, piget, quaedam simile quiddam patiuntur vocabulis quae in adverbium transeunt? ut noctu et diu ita dictu factuque. enim haec quoque verba participialia quidem, non tamen qualia dicto factoque.

[¶69] 5.1. Style has three kinds of excellence, correctness, lucidity and elegance (for many include the all-important quality of appropriateness under the heading of elegance). Its faults are likewise threefold, namely the opposites of these excellences. The teacher of literature therefore must study the rules for correctness of speech, these constituting the first part of his art.

> Latin: 5.1. cum omnis oratio tris habeat virtutes, ut emendata, ut dilucida, ut ornata sit (quia dicere apte, quod est praecipuum, plerique ornatui subiiciunt), totidem vitia, quae sunt supra dictis contraria, emendate loquendi regulam, quae grammatices prior pars est, examinet.

[¶70] 5.2. The observance of these rules is concerned with either one or more words. I must now be understood to use verbum in its most general sense. It has of course two meanings; the one covers all the parts of which language is composed, as in the line of Horace:
Once supply the thought,
And words will follow swift as soon as sought
the other restricts it to a part of speech such as lego and scribo. To avoid this ambiguity, some authorities prefer the terms voces, locutiones, dictiones.

> Latin: 5.2. exigitur verbis aut singulis aut pluribus. nunc generaliter accipi volo, nam duplex eorum intellectus est; alter, qui omnia per quae sermo nectitur significat, ut apud Horatium: verbaque provisam rem non invita sequentur; alter, in quo est una pars orationis, lego, scribo. vitantes ambiguitatem quidam dicere maluerunt voces, locutiones, dictiones.

[¶71] 5.3. Individual words will either be native or imported, simple or compound, literal or metaphorical, in current use or newly-coined. A single word is more likely to be faulty than to possess any intrinsic merit. For though we may speak of a word as appropriate, distinguished or sublime, it can possess none of these properties save in relation to connected and consecutive speech; since when we praise words, we do so because they suit the matter.

> Latin: 5.3. sunt aut nostra aut peregrina, aut simplicia aut composita, aut propria aut translata, aut usitata aut ficta. verbo vitium saepius quam virtus inest. enim dicamus aliquod proprium, speciosum, sublime: nihil tamen horum nisi in complexu loquendi serieque contingit; laudamus enim verba rebus bene accommodata.

[¶72] 5.4. There is only one excellence that can be isolated for consideration, namely euphony, the Greek term for our uocalitas: that is to say that, when we are confronted with making a choice between two exact synonyms, we must select that which sounds best.

> Latin: 5.4. est, quae notari possit velut vocalitas, quae εὐφωνία dicitur; cuius in eo delectus est, ut inter duo, quae idem significant ac tantundem valent, quod melius sonet malis.

[¶73] 5.5. In the first place barbarisms and solecisms must not be allowed to intrude their offensive presence. These blemishes are however pardoned at times, because we have become accustomed to them or because they have age or authority in their favour or are near akin to positive excellences, since it is often difficult to distinguish such blemishes from figures of speech.1 The teacher therefore, that such slippery customers may not elude detection, must seek to acquire a delicate discrimination; but of this I will speak later when I come to discuss figures of speech.

> Latin: 5.5. barbarismi ac soloecismi foeditas absit. quia interim excusantur haec vitia aut consuetudine aut auctoritate aut vetustate aut denique vicinitate virtutum (nam saepe a figuris ea separare difficile est), ne qua tam lubrica observatio fallat, acriter se in illud tenue discrimen grammaticus intendat, de quo nos latius ibi loquemur, ubi de figuris orationis tractandum erit.

[¶74] 5.6. For the present I will define barbarism as an offence occurring in connexion with single words. Some of my readers may object that such a topic is beneath the dignity of so ambitious a work. But who does not know that some barbarisms occur in writing, others in speaking? For although what is incorrect in writing will also be incorrect in speech, the converse is not necessarily true, inasmuch as mistakes in writing are caused by addition or omission, substitution or transposition, while mistakes in speaking are due to separation or combination of syllables, to aspiration or other errors of sound.

> Latin: 5.6. vitium, quod fit in singulis verbis, sit barbarismus. mihi forsan aliquis, quid hic promisso tanti operis dignum? aut quis hoc nescit, alios barbarismos scribendo fieri alios loquendo;—quia, quod male scribitur, male etiam dici necesse est; quae vitiose dixeris, non utique et scripto peccant—illud prius adiectione, detractione, immutatione, transmutatione, hoc secundum divisione, complexione, aspiratione, sono contineri?

[¶75] 5.7. Trivial as these points may seem, our boys are still at school and I am reminding their instructors of their duty. And if one of our teachers is lacking in education and has done no more than set foot in the outer courts of his art, he will have to confine himself to the rules published in the elementary text-books: the more learned teacher on the other hand will be in a position to go much further: first of all, for example, he will point out that there are many different kinds of barbarism.

> Latin: 5.7. ut parva sint haec, pueri docentur adhuc, et grammaticos officii sui commonemus. quibus si quis erit plane impolitus et vestibulum modo artis huius ingressus, intra haec, quae profitentium commentariolis vulgata sunt, consistet, doctiores multa adiicient, vel hoc primum, quod barbarismum pluribus modis accipimus.

[¶76] 5.8. One kind is due to race, such as the insertion of a Spanish or African term; for instance the iron tire of a wheel is called cantus, though Persius uses it as established in the Latin language; Catullus picked up ploxenum (a box) in the valley of the Po, while the author of the in Pollionem, be he Labienus or Cornelius Gallus, imported casamo from Gaul in the sense of “follower.” As for mastruca, which is Sardinian for a “rough coat,” it is introduced by Cicero merely as an object of derision.

> Latin: 5.8. gente, quale est, si quis Afrum vel Hispanum Latinae orationi nomen inserat, ut ferrum, quo rotae vinciuntur, dici solet cantus, quanquam eo tanquam recepto utitur Persius; sicut Catullus ploxenum circa Padum invenit, et in oratione Labieni (sive illa Cornelii Galli est) in Pollionem casamo adsectator e Gallia ductum est; nam mastrucam, quod Sardum est, irridens Cicero ex industria dixit.

[¶77] 5.9. Another kind of barbarism proceeds from the speaker's temper: for instance, we regard it as barbarous if a speaker use cruel or brutal language.

> Latin: 5.9. genus barbarismi accipimus, quod fit animi natura, ut is, a quo insolenter quid aut minaciter aut crudeliter dictum sit, barbare locutus existimatur.

[¶78] 5.10. A third and very common kind, of which anyone may fashion examples for himself, consists in the addition or omission of a letter or syllable, or in the substitution of one for another or in placing one where it has no right to be.

> Latin: 5.10. est illud vitium barbarismi, cuius exempla vulgo sunt plurima, sibi etiam quisque fingere potest, ut verbo, cui libebit, adiiciat litteram syllabamve vel detrahat, aut aliam pro alia aut eandem alio quam rectum est loco ponat.

[¶79] 5.11. Some teachers however, to display their learning, are in the habit of picking out examples of barbarism from the poets and attacking the authors whom they are expounding for using such words. A boy should however realize that in poets such peculiarities are pardonable or even praiseworthy, and should therefore be taught less common instances.

> Latin: 5.11. quidam fere in iactationem eruditionis sumere illa ex poetis solent et auctores quos praelegunt criminantur. autem debet puer, haec apud scriptores carminum aut venia digna aut etiam laude duci, potiusque illa docendi erunt minus vulgata.