---
title: "The Orator’s Education · Institutio oratoria"
author: "Quintilian"
translator: "Harold Edgeworth Butler"
languages: [la, en]
shelf: "Classical Latin"
section: 31 of 53
url: https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/31/
cite: "Quintilian, tr. Harold Edgeworth Butler, The Orator’s Education · Institutio oratoria, section 31. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/31/"
---

# The Orator’s Education · Institutio oratoria

*Quintilian, tr. Harold Edgeworth Butler*

Twelve books on training a good man skilled in speaking, from the nursery to the forum.

> Latin: ed. Harold Edgeworth Butler, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-latinLit, phi1002.phi001, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: Harold Edgeworth Butler, from the Perseus Digital Library (phi1002.phi001.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 31. Book VIII · preface, chapters 1–3

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/31/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/quintilian-institutio-oratoria/31/#p-N

[¶0] pr.1. THE observations contained in the preceding five books approximately cover the method of invention and the arrangement of the material thus provided. It is absolutely necessary to acquire a thorough knowledge of this method in all its details, if we desire to become accomplished orators, but a simpler and briefer course of instruction is more suitable for beginners.

> Latin: pr.1. fere, quae in proximos quinque libros collata sunt, ratio inveniendi atque inventa disponendi continetur, quam ut per omnes numeros penitus cognoscere ad summam scientiae necessarium est, ita incipientibus brevius ac simplicius tradi magis convenit.

[¶1] pr.2. For they tend either to be deterred from study by the difficulties of so detailed and complicated a course, or lose heart at having to attempt tasks of such difficulty just at the very period when their minds need special nourishment and a more attractive form of diet, or think that when they have learned this much and no more, they are fully equipped for the tasks of eloquence, or finally, regarding themselves as fettered by certain fixed laws of oratory, shrink from making any effort on their own initiative.

> Latin: pr.2. enim difficultate institutionis tam numerosae atque perplexae deterreri solent, aut eo tempore, quo praecipue alenda ingenia atque indulgentia quadam enutrienda sunt, asperiorum tractatu rerum atteruntur, aut, si haec sola didicerunt, satis se ad eloquentiam instructos arbitrantur, aut quasi ad certas quasdam dicendi leges adligati conatum omnem reformidant.

[¶2] pr.3. Consequently, it has been held that those who have exercised the greatest care in writing text-books of rhetoric have been the furthest removed from genuine eloquence. Still, it is absolutely necessary to point out to beginners the road which they should follow, though this road must be smooth and easy not merely to enter, but to indicate. Consequently, our skilful instructor should select all that is best in the various writers on the subject and content himself for the moment with imparting those precepts of which he approves, without wasting time over the refutation of those which he does not approve. For thus your pupils will follow where you lead.

> Latin: pr.3. existimant accidisse ut, qui diligentissimi artium scriptores exstiterint, ab eloquentia longissime fuerint. tamen opus est incipientibus, sed ea plana et cum ad ingrediendum tum ad demonstrandum expedita. itaque peritus ille praeceptor ex omnibus optima et tradat ea demum in praesentia quae placet, remota refutandi cetera mora. enim discipuli, quo duxeris.

[¶3] pr.4. Later, as they acquire strength in speaking, their learning will grow in proportion. To begin with, they may be allowed to think that there is no other road than that on which we have set their feet, and it may be left to time to teach them what is actually the best. It is true that writers on rhetoric have, by the pertinacity with which they have defended their opinions, made the principles of the science which they profess somewhat complicated; but these principles are in reality neither obscure nor hard to understand.

> Latin: pr.4. cum robore dicendi crescet etiam eruditio. primo solum iter credant esse in quod inducentur, mox illud cognituri etiam optimum. autem neque obscura neque ad percipiendum difficilia quae scriptores diversis opinionibus pertinaciter tuendis involverunt.

[¶4] pr.5. Consequently, if we regard the treatment of the art as a whole, it is harder to decide what we should teach than to teach it, once the decision has been made. Above all, in the two departments which I have mentioned, the necessary rules are but few in number, and if the pupil gives them ready acceptance, he will find that the path to further accomplishment presents no difficulty.

> Latin: pr.5. in toto artis huiusce tractatu difficilius est iudicare quid doceas quam, cum iudicaris, docere, praecipueque in duabus his partibus perquam sunt pauca, circa quae si is qui instituitur non repugnaverit, pronum ad cetera habiturus est cursum.

[¶5] pr.6. I have, it is true, already expended much labour on this portion of my task; for I desired to make it clear that rhetoric is the science of speaking well, that it is useful, and further, that it is an art and a virtue. I wished also to show that its subject matter consists of everything on which an orator may be called to speak, and is, as a rule, to be found in three classes of oratory, demonstrative, deliberative, and forensic; that every speech is composed of matter and words, and that as regards matter we must study invention, as regards words, style, and as regards both, arrangement, all of which it is the task of memory to retain and delivery to render attractive.

> Latin: pr.6. enim plurimum in hoc laboris exhausimus, ut ostenderemus rhetoricen bene dicendi scientiam et utilem et artem et virtutem esse; materiam eius res omnes de quibus dicendum esset; eas in tribus fere generibus, demonstrativo, deliberative, iudicialique reperiri; orationem porro omnem constare rebus et verbis; in rebus intuendam inventionem, in verbis elocutionem, in utroque collocationem, quae memoria conplecteretur, actio commendaret. officium docendi, movendi, delectandi partibus contineri, ex quibus ad docendum expositio et argumentatio, ad movendum adfectus pertinerent, quos per omnem quidem causam sed maxime tamen in ingressu ac fine dominari.

[¶6] pr.7. I attempted to show that the duty of the orator is composed of instructing, moving and delighting his hearers, statement of facts and argument falling under the head of instruction, while emotional appeals are concerned with moving the audience and, although they may be employed throughout the case, are most effective at the beginning and end. As to the element of charm, I pointed out that, though it may reside both in facts and words, its special sphere is that of style. I observed that there are two kinds of questions, the one indefinite, the other definite, and involving the consideration of persons and circumstances of time and place; further, that whatever our subject matter, there are three questions which we must ask, is it? what is it? and of what kind is it? To this I added that demonstrative oratory consists of praise and denunciation, and that in this connexion we must consider not merely the acts actually performed by the person of whom we were speaking, but what happened after his death. This task I showed to be concerned solely with what is honourable or expedient.

> Latin: pr.7. delectationem, quamvis in utroque sit eorum, magis tamen proprias in elocutione partes habere. alias infinitas, alias finitas quae personis, temporibus, locis continerentur. omni porro materia tria esse quaerenda, an sit, quid sit, quale sit. adiiciebamus demonstrativam laude ac vituperatione constare. ea quae ab ipso de quo diceremus, quae post eum acta essent, intuendum. opus tractatu honestorum utiliumque constare.

[¶7] pr.9. I remarked that in deliberative oratory there is a third department as well which depends on conjecture, for we have to consider whether the subject of deliberation is possible or likely to happen. At this point I emphasised the importance of considering who it is that is speaking, before whom he is speaking, and what he says. As regards forensic cases, I demonstrated that some turn on one point of dispute, others on several, and that whereas in some cases it is the attack, in others in is the defence that determines the basis; that every defence rests on denial, which is of two kinds, since we may either deny that the act was committed or that its nature was that alleged, while it further consists of justification and technical pleas to show that the action cannot stand.

> Latin: pr.9. accedere tertiam partem ex coniectura, possetne fieri et an esset futurum de quo deliberaretur. praecipue diximus spectandum, quis, apud quem, quid diceret. causarum alias in singulis, alias in pluribus controversiis consistere, et in quibusdam intentionem modo stature facere, modo depulsionem; depulsionem porro omnem infitiatione duplici, factumne et an hoc factum esset, praeterea defensione ac translatione constare.

[¶8] pr.10. I proceeded to show that questions must turn either on something written or something done: in the latter case we have to consider the truth of the facts together with their special character and quality; in the former we consider the meaning or the intention of the words, with reference to which we usually examine the nature of all cases, criminal or civil, which fall under the heads of the letter and intention, the syllogism, ambiguity or contrary lairs.

> Latin: pr.10. aut ex scripto esse aut ex facto; facto, de rerum fide, proprietate, qualitate; scripto, de verborum vi aut voluntate, in quibus vis tum causarum tum actionum inspici soleat, quae aut scripti et voluntatis aut ratiocinativa aut ambiguitatis aut legum contrariarum specie continentur.

[¶9] pr.11. I went on to point out that in all forensic cases the speech consists of five parts, the exordium designed to conciliate the audience, the statement of facts designed to instruct him, the proof which confirms our own propositions, the refutation which overthrows the arguments of our opponents, and the peroration which either refreshes the memory of our hearers or plays upon their emotions.

> Latin: pr.11. omni porro causa iudiciali quinque esse partes, quarum exordio conciliari audientem, narratione doceri, probatione proposita confirmari, refutatione contra dicta dissolvi, peroratione aut memoriam refici aut animos moveri.

[¶10] pr.12. I then dealt with the sources of arguments and emotion, and indicated the means by which the judges should be excited, placated, or amused. Finally I demonstrated the method of division. But I would ask that the student who is really desirous of learning should believe that there are also a variety of subjects with regard to which nature itself should provide much of the requisite knowledge without any assistance from formal teaching, so that the precepts of which I have spoken may be regarded not so much as having been discovered by the professors of rhetoric as having been noted by them when they presented themselves.

> Latin: pr.12. argumentandi et adficiendi locos et quibus generibus concitari, placari, resolvi iudices oporteret, adiecimus. ratio divisionis. modo qui discet velit materiam quandam variam esse, et in qua multa etiam sine doctrina praestare debeat per se ipsa natura, ut haec de quibus dixi non tam inventa a praeceptoribus quam cum fierent observata esse videantur.

[¶11] pr.13. The points which follow require greater care and industry. For I have now to discuss the theory of style, a subject which, as all orators agree, presents the greatest difficulty. For Marcus Antonius, whom I mentioned above, states that lie has seen many good, but no really eloquent speakers, and holds that, while to be a good speaker it is sufficient to say what is necessary, only the really eloquent speaker can do this in ornate and appropriate language.

> Latin: pr.13. exigunt laboris et curae quae sequuntur. enim iam elocutionis rationem tractabimus, partem operis, ut inter omnes oratores convenit, difficillimam. et M. Antonius, cuius supra mentionem habuimus, cum a se disertos visos esse multos ait, eloquentem neminem: diserto satis putat dicere quae oporteat, ornate autem dicere proprium esse eloquentissimi.

[¶12] pr.14. And if this excellence was to be found in no orator up to his own day, and not even in himself or Lucius Crassus, we may regard it as certain that the reason why they and their predecessors lacked this gift was its extreme difficulty of acquisition. Again, Cicero holds that, while invention and arrangement are within the reach of any man of good sense, eloquence belongs to the orator alone, and consequently it was on the rules for the cultivation of eloquence that he expended the greatest care.

> Latin: pr.14. virtus si usque ad eum in nullo reperta est, ac ne in ipso quidem aut L. Crasso, certum est et in his et in prioribus eam desideratam, quia difficillima fuit. Marcus Tullius inventionem quidem ac dispositionem prudentis hominis putat, eloquentiam oratoris, ideoque praecipue circa praecepta partis huius laboravit.

[¶13] pr.15. That he was justified in so doing is shown clearly by the actual name of the art of which I am speaking. For the verb eloqui means the production and communication to the audience of all that the speaker has conceived in his mind, and without this power all the preliminary accomplishments of oratory are as useless as a sword that is kept permanently concealed within its sheath.

> Latin: pr.15. eum merito fecisse etiam ipso rei, de qua loquimur, nomine palam declaratur. enim est omnia, quae mente conceperis, promere atque ad audientes perferre; sine quo supervacua sunt priora et similia gladio condito atque intra vaginam suam haerenti.

[¶14] pr.16. Therefore it is on this that teachers of rhetoric concentrate their attention, since it cannot possibly be acquired without the assistance of the rules of artit is this which is the chief object of our study, the goal of all our exercises and all our efforts at imitation, and it is to this that we devote the energies of a lifetime; it is this that makes one orator surpass his rivals, this that makes one style of speaking preferable to another.

> Latin: pr.16. itaque maxime docetur, hoc nullus nisi arte adsequi potest, hic studium plurimum adhibendum, hoc exercitatio petit, hoc imitatio, hic omnis aetas consumitur, hoc maxime orator oratore praestantior, hoc genera ipsa dicendi alia alia potiora.

[¶15] pr.17. The failure of the orators of the Asiatic and other decadent schools did not lie in their inability to grasp or arrange the facts on which they had to speak, nor, on the other hand, were those who professed what we call the dry style of oratory either fools or incapable of understanding the cases in which they were engaged. No, the fault of the former was that they lacked taste and restraint in speaking, while the latter lacked power, whence it is clear that it is here that the real faults and virtues of oratory are to be found.

> Latin: pr.17. enim Asiani aut quocunque alio genere corrupti res non viderunt aut eas non collocaverunt neque, quos aridos vocamus, stulti aut in causis caeci fuerunt; sed his iudicium in eloquendo ac modus, illis vires defuerunt, ut appareat in hoc et vitium et virtutem esse dicendi.

[¶16] pr.18. This does not, however, mean that we should devote ourselves to the study of words alone. For I am compelled to offer the most prompt and determined resistance to those who would at the very portals of this enquiry lay hold of the admissions I have just made and, disregarding the subject matter which, after all, is the backbone of any speech, devote themselves to the futile and crippling study of words in a vain desire to acquire the gift of elegance, a gift which I myself regard as the fairest of all the glories of oratory, but only when it is natural and unaffected.

> Latin: pr.18. ideo tamen sola est agenda cura verborum. enim necesse est et, velut in vestibulo protinus apprehensuris hanc confessionem meam, resistam iis qui, omissa rerum (qui nervi sunt in causis) diligentia, quodam inani circa voces studio senescunt, idque faciunt gratia decoris, qui est in dicendo mea quidem opinione pulcherrimus, sed cum sequitur non cum adfectatur.

[¶17] pr.19. Healthy bodies, enjoying a good circulation and strengthened by exercise, acquire grace from the same source that gives them strength, for they have a healthy complexion, firm flesh and shapely thews. But, on the other hand, the man who attempts to enhance these physical graces by the effeminate use of depilatories and cosmetics, succeeds merely in defacing them by the very care which he bestows on them.

> Latin: pr.19. sana et integri sanguinis et exercitatione firmata ex iisdem his speciem accipiunt ex quibus vires, namque et colorata et adstricta et lacertis expressa sunt; at eadem si quis volsa atque fucata muliebriter comat, foedissima sint ipso formae labore.

[¶18] pr.20. Again, a tasteful and magnificent dress, as the Greek poet tells us, lends added dignity to its wearer: but effeminate and luxurious apparel fails to adorn the body and merely reveals the foulness of the mind. Similarly, a translucent and iridescent style merely serves to emasculate the subject which it arrays with such pomp of words. Therefore I would have the orator, while careful in his choice of words, be even more concerned about his subject matter.

> Latin: pr.20. cultus concessus atque magnificus addit hominibus, ut Graeco versu testatum est, auctoritatem; at muliebris et luxuriosus non corpus exornat, sed detegit mentem. illa translucida et versicolor quorundam elocutio res ipsas effeminat, quae illo verborum habitu vestiantur. ergo verborum, rerum volo esse sollicitudinem.

[¶19] pr.21. For, as a rule, the best words are essentially suggested by the subject matter and are discovered by their own intrinsic light. But to-day we hunt for these words as though they were always hiding themselves and striving to elude our grasp. And thus we fail to realise that they are to be found in the subject of our speech, and seek them elsewhere, and, when we have found them, force them to suit their context.

> Latin: pr.21. plerumque optima rebus cohaerent et cernuntur suo lumine; at nos quaerimus illa, tanquam lateant semper seque subducant. nunquam putamus circa id esse de quo dicendum est, sed ex aliis locis petimus et inventis vim adferimus.

[¶20] pr.22. It is with a more virile spirit that we should pursue eloquence, who, if only her whole body be sound, will never think it her duty to polish her nails and tire her hair. The usual result of over-attention to the niceties of style is the deterioration of our eloquence.

> Latin: pr.22. animo aggredienda eloquentia est, quae si toto corpore valet, ungues polire et capillum reponere non existimabit ad curam suam pertinere. evenit plerumque ut in hac diligentia deterior etiam fiat oratio, primum, quia sunt optima minime arcessita et simplicibus atque ab ipsa veritate profectis similia.

[¶21] pr.23. The main reason for this is that those words are best which are least far-fetched and give the impression of simplicity and reality. For those words which are obviously the result of careful search and even seem to parade their self-conscious art, fail to attain the grace at which they aim and lose all appearance of sincerity because they darken the sense and choke the good seed by their own luxuriant overgrowth.

> Latin: pr.23. illa, quae curam fatentur et ficta atque composita videri etiam volunt, nec gratiam consequuntur et fidem amittunt propter id quod sensus obumbrantur et velut laeto gramine sata strangulantur.

[¶22] pr.24. For in our passion for words we paraphrase what might be said in plain language, repeat what we have already said at sufficient length, pile up a number of words where one would suffice, and regard allusion as better than directness of speech. So, too, all directness of speech is at a discount, and we think no phrase eloquent that another could conceivably have used.

> Latin: pr.24. et quod recte dici potest circumimus amore verborum et quod satis dictum est repetimus et quod uno verbo patet pluribus oneramus et pleraque significare melius putamus quam dicere. quod nihil iam proprium placet, dum parum creditur disertum quod et alius dixisset?

[¶23] pr.25. We borrow figures and metaphors from the most decadent poets, and regard it as a real sign of genius that it should require a genius to understand our meaning. And yet Cicero long since laid down this rule in the clearest of language, that the worst fault in speaking is to adopt a style inconsistent with the idiom of ordinary speech and contrary to the common feeling of mankind.

> Latin: pr.25. A corruptissimo quoque poetarum figuras seu translationes mutuamur, tum demum ingeniosi scilicet, si ad intelligendos nos opus sit ingenio. satis aperte Cicero praeceperat, in dicendo vitium vel maximum esse a vulgari genere orationis atque a consuetudine communis sensus abhorrere.

[¶24] pr.26. But nowadays our rhetoricians regard Cicero as lacking both polish and learning; we are far superior, for we look upon everything that is dictated by nature as beneath our notice, and seek not for the true ornaments of speech, but for meretricious finery, as though there were any real virtue in words save in their power to represent facts. And if we have to spend all our life in the laborious effort to discover words which will at once be brilliant, appropriate and lucid, and to arrange them with exact precision, we lose all the fruit of our studies.

> Latin: pr.26. ille est durus atque ineruditus; nos melius, quibus sordet omne quod natura dictavit, qui non ornamenta quaerimus sed lenocinia, quasi vero sit ulla verborum nisi rei cohaerentium virtus; quae ut propria sint et dilucida et ornata et apte collocentur, si tota vita laborandum est, omnis studiorum fructus amissus est.

[¶25] pr.27. And yet we see the majority of modern speakers wasting their time over the discovery of single words and over the elaborate weighing and measurement of such words when once discovered. Even if the special aim of such a practice were always to secure the best words, such an ill-starred form of industry would be much to be deprecated, since it checks tile natural current of our speech and extinguishes the warmth of imagination by the delay and loss of self-confidence which it occasions.

> Latin: pr.27. plerosque videas haerentes circa singula et dum inveniunt et dum inventa ponderant ac dimetiuntur. si idcirco fieret ut semper optimis uterentur, abominanda tamen haec infelicitas erat, quae et cursum dicendi refrenat et calorem cogitationis extinguit mora et diffidentia.

[¶26] pr.28. For the orator who cannot endure to lose a single word is like a man plunged in griping poverty. On the other hand, if he will only first form a true conception of the principles of eloquence, accumulate a copious supply of words by wide and suitable reading, apply the art of arrangement to the words thus acquired, and finally, by continual exercise, develop strength to use his acquisitions so that every word is ready at hand and lies under his very eyes, he will never lose a single word.

> Latin: pr.28. enim et, ut sic dicam, pauper orator est qui nullum verbum aequo animo perdere potest. ne perdet quidem, qui rationem loquendi primum cognoverit, tum lectione multa et idonea copiosam sibi verborum supellectilem compararit et huic adhibuerit artem collocandi, deinde haec omnia exercitatione plurima roborarit, ut semper in promptu sint et ante oculos.

[¶27] pr.29. For the man who follows these instructions will find that facts and words appropriate to their expression will present themselves spontaneously. But it must be remembered that a long course of preliminary study is necessary and that the requisite ability must not merely be acquired, but carefully stored for use; for the anxiety devoted to the search for words, to the exercise of the critical faculty and the power of comparison is in its place while we are learning, but not when we are speaking. Otherwise, the orator who has not given sufficient attention to preliminary study will be like a man who, having no fortune, lives from hand to mouth.

> Latin: pr.29. ei qui id fecerit simul res cum suis nominibus occurrent. opus est studio praecedente et acquisita facultate et quasi reposita. ista quaerendi, iudicandi, comparandi anxietas, dum discimus, adhibenda est, non dum dicimus. sicut, qui patrimonium non pararunt, sub diem quaerunt, ita in oratione, qui non satis laboravit.

[¶28] pr.30. If, on the other hand, the powers of speech have been carefully cultivated beforehand, words will yield us ready service, not merely turning up when we search for them, but dwelling in our thoughts and following them as the shadow follows the body.

> Latin: pr.30. praeparata dicendi vis fuerit, erunt in officio, non ut requisita respondere, sed ut semper sensibus inhaerere videantur atque eos ut umbra corpus sequi.

[¶29] pr.31. There are, however, limits even to this form of study; for when our words are good Latin, full of meaning, elegant and aptly arranged, why should we labour further? And yet there are some who are never weary of morbid self-criticism, who throw themselves into an agony of mind almost over separate syllables, and even when they have discovered the best words for their purpose look for some word that is older, less familiar, and less obvious, since they cannot bring themselves to realise that when a speech is praised for its words, it implies that its sense is inadequate.

> Latin: pr.31. in hac ipsa cura est aliquid satis. cum Latina, significantia, ornata, cum apte sunt collocata, quid amplius laboremus? tamen nullus est finis calumniandi se et cum singulis paene syllabis commoriendi, qui etiam, cum optima sunt reperta, quaerunt aliquid quod sit magis antiquum, remotum, inopinatum, nec intelligunt iacere sensus in oratione, in qua verba laudantur.

[¶30] pr.32. While, then, style calls for the utmost attention, we must always bear in mind that nothing should be done for the sake of words only, since words were invented merely to give expression to things: and those words are the most satisfactory which give the best expression to the thoughts of our mind and produce the effect which we desire upon the minds of the judges.

> Latin: pr.32. igitur cura elocutionis quam maxima, dum sciamus tamen nihil verborum causa esse faciendun, cum verba ipsa rerum gratia sint reperta; quorum ea sunt maxime probabilia, quae sensum animi nostri optime promunt atque in animis iudicum quod nos volumus efficiunt.

[¶31] pr.33. Such words will assuredly be productive of a style that will both give pleasure and awaken admiration; and the admiration will be of a kind far other than that which we bestow on portents, while the pleasure evoked by the charm will have nothing morbid about it, but will be praiseworthy and dignified.

> Latin: pr.33. debent praestare sine dubio et admirabilem et iucundam orationem, verum admirabilem non sic, quomodo prodigia miramur, et iucundam non deformi voluptate sed cum laude ac dignitate coniuncta.

[¶32] 1.1. I. What the Greeks call φράσιν we in Latin call elocuio or style. Style is revealed both in individual words and in groups of words. As regards the former, we must see that they are Latin, clear, elegant and well-adapted to produce the desired effect. As regards the latter, they must be correct, aptly placed and adorned with suitable figures.

> Latin: 1.1. , quam Graeci φράσιν vocant, Latine dicimus elocutionem. spectatur verbis aut singulis aut coniunctis. singulis intuendum est ut sint Latina, perspicua, ornata, ad id quod efficere volumus accommodata, in coniunctis, ut emendata, ut collocata, ut figurata.

[¶33] 1.2. I have already, in the portions of the first book dealing with the subject of grammar, said all that is necessary on the way to acquire idiomatic and correct speech. But there my remarks were restricted to the prevention of positive faults, and it is well that I should now point out that our words should have nothing provincial or foreign about them. For you will find that there are a number of writers by no means deficient in style whose language is precious rather than idiomatic. As an illustration of my meaning I would remind you of the story of the old woman at Athens, who, when Theophrastus, a man of no mean eloquence, used one solitary word in an affected way, immediately said that he was a foreigner, and on being asked how she detected it, replied that his language was too Attic for Athens. Again Asinius Pollio held that Livy, for all his astounding eloquence, showed traces of the idiom of Padua.

> Latin: 1.2. ea, quae de ratione Latine atque emendate loquendi fuerunt dicenda, in libro primo, cum de grammatice loqueremur, exsecuti sumus. illic tantum ne vitiosa essent praecepimus; hic non alienum est admonere ut sint quam minime peregrina et externa. enim, quibus loquendi ratio non desit, invenias quos curiose potius loqui dixeris quam Latine, quomodo et illa Attica anus Theophrastum, hominem alioqui disertissimum, adnotata unius adfectatione verbi, hospitem dixit nec alio se id deprehendisse interrogata respondit, quam quod nimium Attice loqueretur.

[¶34] 1.3. Therefore, if possible, our voice and all our words should be such as to reveal the native of this city, so that our speech may seem to be of genuine Roman origin, and not merely to have been presented with Roman citizenship.

> Latin: 1.3. in Tito Livio, mirae facundiae viro, putat inesse Pollio Asinius quandam Patavinitatem., si fieri potest et verba omnia et vox huius aluminum urbis oleant, ut oratio Romana plane videatur, non civitate donata.

[¶35] 2.1. Clearness results above all from propriety in the use of words. But propriety is capable of more than one interpretation. In its primary sense it means calling things by their right names, and is consequently sometimes to be avoided, for our language must not be obscene, unseemly or mean.

> Latin: 2.1. in verbis praecipuam habet proprietatem, sed proprietas ipsa non simpliciter accipitur. enim intellectus est sua cuiusque rei appellatio, qua non semper utemur; nam et obscena vitabimus et sordida et humilia.

[¶36] 2.2. Language may be described as mean when it is beneath the dignity of the subject or the rank of the speaker. Some orators fall into serious error in their eagerness to avoid this fault, and are afraid of all words that are in ordinary use, even although they may be absolutely necessary for their purpose. There was, for example, the man who in the course of a speech spoke of “Iberian grass,” a meaningless phrase intelligible only to himself. Cassius Severus, however, by way of deriding his affectation, explained that he meant Spanish broom.

> Latin: 2.2. autem humilia infra dignitatem rerum aut ordinis. quo vitio cavendo non mediocriter errare quidam solent, qui omnia quae sunt in usu, etiamsi causae necessitas postulet, reformidant; ut ille, qui in actione Hibericas herbas, se solo nequiquam intelligente, dicebat, nisi irridens hanc vanitatem Cassius Severus spartum dicere eum velle indicasset.

[¶37] 2.3. Nor do I see why a certain distinguished orator thought “fishes conserved in brine ” a more elegant phrase than the word which he avoided. But while there is no special merit in the form of propriety which consists in calling things by their real names, it is a fault to fly to the opposite extreme. This fault we call impropriety, while the Greeks call it ἄκυρον As examples I may cite the Virgilian, “Never could I have hoped for such great woe,” or the phrase, which I noted had been corrected by Cicero in a speech of Dolabella's, “To bring death,” or again, phrases of a kind that win praise from some of our contemporaries, such as, “His words fell from the cross.”

> Latin: 2.3. video quare clarus orator duratos muria pisces nitidius esse crediderit quam ipsum id quod vitabat. In hac autem proprietatis specie, quae nominibus ipsis cuiusque rei utitur, nulla virtus est, at quod ei contrarium est, vitium. apud nos improprium, ἄκυρον apud Graecos vocatur, quale est, tantum sperare dolorem, aut, quod in oratione Dolabellae emendatum a Cicerone adnotavi, mortem ferre, aut, qualia nunc laudantur a quibusdam, quorum est, de cruce verba ceciderunt.

[¶38] 2.4. On the other hand, everything that lacks appropriateness will not necessarily suffer from the fault of positive impropriety, because there are, in the first place, many things which have no proper term either in Greek or Latin.

> Latin: 2.4. tamen quidquid non erit proprium, protinus et improprii vitio laborabit, quia primum omnium multa sunt et Graece et Latine non denominata.

[¶39] 2.5. For example, the verb iaculari is specially used in the sense of “to throw a javelin,” whereas there is no special verb appropriated to the throwing of a ball or a stake. So, too, while lapidare has the obvious meaning of “to stone,” there is no special word to describe the throwing of clods or potsherds.

> Latin: 2.5. et, qui iaculum emittit, iaculari dicitur, qui pilam aut sudem, appellatione privatim sibi adsignata caret; et ut, lapidare quid sit, manifestum est, ita glebarum testarumque iactus non habet nomen.

[¶40] 2.6. Hence abuse or catachresis of words becomes necessary, while metaphor, also, which is the supreme ornament of oratory, applies words to things with which they have strictly no connexion. Consequently propriety turns not on the actual term, but on the meaning of the term, and must be tested by the touchstone of the understanding, not of the ear.

> Latin: 2.6. abusio, quae κατάχρησις dicitur, necessaria. quoque, in qua vel maximus est orationis ornatus, verba non suis rebus accommodat. proprietas non ad nomen, sed ad vim significandi refertur nec auditu, sed intellectu perpendenda est.

[¶41] 2.7. The second sense in which the word propriety is used occurs when there are a number of things all called by the same name: in this case the original term from which the others are derived is styled the proper term. For example, the word vertex means a whirl of water, or of anything else that is whirled in a like manner: then, owing to the fashion of coiling the hair, it comes to mean the top of the head, while finally, from this sense it derives the meaning of the highest point of a mountain. All these things may correctly be called vertices, but the proper use of the term is the first. So, too, solea and tuidus are employed as names of fish, to mention no other cases.

> Latin: 2.7. modo dicitur proprium inter plura, quae sunt eiusdem nominis, id unde cetera ducta sunt; ut vertex est contorta in se aqua vel quidquid aliud similiter vertitur, inde propter flexum capillorum pars summa capitis, ex hoc id quod in montibus eminentissimum. dixeris haec omnia vertices, proprie tamen unde initium est.

[¶42] 2.8. The third kind of propriety is found in the case where a thing which serves a number of purposes has a special name in some one particular context; for example, the proper term for a funeral song is naenia, and for the general's tent augurale. Again, a term which is common to a number of things may be applied in a proper or special sense to some one of them. Thus we use urbs in the special sense of Rome, venales in the special sense of newly-purchased slaves, and Corinthia in the special sense of bronzes, although there are other cities besides Rome, and many other things which may be styled venales besides slaves, and gold and silver are found at Corinth as well as bronze. But the use of such terms implies no special excellence in an orator.

> Latin: 2.8. soleae et turdi pisces et cetera. est huic diversus modus, cum res communis pluribus in uno aliquo habet nomen eximium, ut carmen funebre proprie nenia et tabernaculum ducis augurale., quod commune et aliis nomen intellectu alicui rei peculiariter tribuitur, ut urbem Romam accipimus et venales novicios et Corinthia aera, cum sint urbes aliae quoque et venalia multa et tam aurum et argentum quam aes Corinthium. ne in his quidem virtus oratoris inspicitur.

[¶43] 2.9. There is, however, a form of propriety of speech which deserves the highest praise, that is to say, the employment of words with the maximum of significance, as, for instance, when Cato said that “Caesar was thoroughly sober when he undertook the task of overthrowing the constitution,” or as Virgil spoke of a “thin-drawn strain,” and Horace of the “shrill pipe,” and “dread Hannibal.”

> Latin: 2.9. illud iam non mediocriter probandum, quod hoc etiam laudari modo solet, ut proprie dictum, id est, quo nihil inveniri possit significantius: ut Cato dixit, C. Caesarem ad evertendam rem publicam sobrium accessisse; ut Virgilius deductum carmen, et Horatius acrem tibiam Hannibalemque dirum.

[¶44] 2.10. Some also include under this head that form of propriety which is derived from characteristic epithets, such as in the Virgilian phrases, “sweet unfermented wine,” or “with white teeth.” But of this sort of propriety I shall have to speak elsewhere.

> Latin: 2.10. quo modo illud quoque est a quibusdam traditum proprii genus ex appositis (epitheta dicuntur): ut dulcis musti et cum dentibus albis. quo genere alio loco dicendum est.

[¶45] 2.11. Propriety is also made to include the appropriate use of words in metaphor, while at times the salient characteristic of an individual comes to be attached to him as a proper name: thus Fabius was called “Cunctator,” the Delayer, on account of the most remarkable of his many military virtues. Some, perhaps, may think that words which mean more than they actually say deserve mention in connexion with clearness, since they assist the understanding. I, however, prefer to place emphasis among the ornaments of oratory, since it does not make a thing intelligible, but merely more intelligible.

> Latin: 2.11. quae bene translata sunt propria dici solent. autem quae sunt in quoque praecipua proprii locum accipiunt, ut Fabius inter plures imperatorias virtutes est appellatus. videri verba, quae plus significant quam eloquuntur, in parte ponenda perspicuitatis; intellectum enim adiuvant. tamen libentius emphasim retulerim ad ornatum orationis, quia non ut intelligatur efficit, sed ut plus intelligatur.

[¶46] 2.12. Obscurity, on the other hand, results from the employment of obsolete words, as, for instance, if an author should search the records of the priests, the earliest treaties and the works of long-forgotten writers with the deliberate design of collecting words that no man living understands. For there are persons who seek to gain a reputation for erudition by such means as this, in order that they may be regarded as the sole depositories of certain forms of knowledge.

> Latin: 2.12. obscuritas fit verbis iam ab usu remotis: ut si commentarios quis pontificum et vetustissima foedera et exoletos scrutatus auctores id ipsum petat ex his quae inde contraxerit, quod non intelliguntur. enim aliqui famam eruditionis adfectant, ut quaedam soli scire videantur.

[¶47] 2.13. Obscurity may also be produced by the use of words which are more familiar in certain districts than in others, or which are of a technical character, such as the wind called “Atabalus,” or a “sack-ship,” or in malo cosanum. Such expressions should be avoided if we are pleading before a judge who is ignorant of their meaning, or, if used, should be explained, as may have to be done in the case of what are called homonyms. For example, the word taurus may be unintelligible unless we make it clear whether we are speaking of a bull, or a mountain, or a constellation, or the name of a man, or the root of a tree.

> Latin: 2.13. etiam verba vel regionibus quibusdam magis familiaria vel artium propria, ut Atabulus ventus et navis saccaria et in malo cosanum. quae vel vitanda apud iudicem ignarum significationum earum vel interpretanda sunt, sicut in his, quae homonyma vocantur: ut, animal sit an mons an signum in coelo an nomen hominis an radix arboris, nisi distinctum non intelligetur.

[¶48] 2.14. A greater source of obscurity is, however, to be found in the construction and combination of words, and the ways in which this may occur are still more numerous. Therefore, a sentence should never be so long that it is impossible to follow its drift, nor should its conclusion be unduly postponed by transposition or an excessive use of hyperbaton. Still worse is the result when the order of the words is confused as in the line
In the midmost sea
Rocks are there by Italians altars called.
Again, parenthesis, so often employed by orators and historians, and consisting in the insertion of one sentence in the midst of another, may seriously hinder the understanding of a passage, unless the insertion is short.

> Latin: 2.14. tamen est obscuritatis in contextu et continuatione sermonis et plures modi. nec sit tam longus, ut eum prosequi non possit intentio, nec traiectione vel ultra modum hyperbato finis eius differatur. adhuc peior est mixtura verborum, qualis in illo versu.
vacant Itali, mediis quae in fluctibus, aras.

[¶49] 2.15. For example, in the passage where Vergil describes a colt, the words
Nor fears he empty noises,
are followed by a number of remarks of a totally different form, and it is only four lines later that the poet returns to the point and says,
Then, if tile sound of arms be heard afar,
How to stand still he knows not.
Above all, ambiguity must be avoided, and by ambiguity I mean not merely the kind of which I have already spoken, where the sense is uncertain, as in the clause Chremetem audivi percussisse Demean, but also that form of ambiguity which, although it does not actually result in obscuring the sense, falls into the same verbal error as if a man should say visum a se hominem librum scribentem (that he had seen a man writing a book).

> Latin: 2.15. interiectione (qua et oratores et historici frequenter utuntur, ut medio sermone aliquem inserant sensum) impediri solet intellectus, nisi quod interponitur breve est. Vergilius illo loco, quo pullum equinum describit, cum dixisset,
vanos horret strepitus,
compluribus insertis alia figura quinto demum versu redit,, si qua sonum procul arma dedere,
loco nescit.
Vitanda in primis ambiguitas, non haec solum, de cuius genere supra dictum est, quae incertum intellectum facit, ut Chremetem audivi percussisse Demean, sed illa quoque, quae, etiamsi turbare non potest sensum, in idem tamen verborum vitium incidit, ut si quis dicat, visum a se hominem libram scribentem.

[¶50] 2.16. For although it is clear that the book was being written by the man, the sentence is badly put together, and its author has made it as ambiguous as he could.

> Latin: 2.16. etiamsi librum ab homine scribi patet, male tamen composuerit feceritque ambiguum, quantum in ipso fuit.

[¶51] 2.17. Again, some writers introduce a whole host of useless words; for, in their eagerness to avoid ordinary methods of expression, and allured by false ideals of beauty they wrap up everything in a multitude of words simply and solely because they are unwilling to make a direct and simple statement of the facts: and then they link up and involve one of those long-winded clauses with others like it, and extend their periods to a length beyond the compass of mortal breath.

> Latin: 2.17. etiam in quibusdam turba inanium verborum, qui, dum communem loquendi more reformidant, ducti specie nitoris circumeunt omnia copiosa loquacitate, eo quod dicere nolunt ipsa; deinde illam seriem cum alia simili iungentes miscentesque, ultra quam ullus spiritus durare possit, extendunt.

[¶52] 2.18. Some even expend an infinity of toil to acquire this vice, which, by the way, is nothing new: for I learn from the pages of Livy that there was one, a teacher, who instructed his pupils to make all they said obscure, using the Greek word σκότισον ( “darken it.” ) It was this same habit that gave rise to the famous words of praise, “So much the better: even I could not understand you.”

> Latin: 2.18. hoc malum a quibusdam etiam laboratur; neque id novum vitium est, cum iam apud Titum Livium inveniam fuisse praeceptorem aliquem, qui discipulos obscurare quae dicerent iuberet, Graeco verbo utens σκότισον. illa scilicet egregia laudatio: melior;

[¶53] 2.19. Others are consumed with a passion for brevity and omit words which are actually necessary to the sense, regarding it as a matter of complete indifference whether their meaning is intelligible to others, so long as they know what they mean themselves. For my own part, I regard as useless words which make such a demand upon the ingenuity of the hearer. Others, again, succeed in committing the same fault by a perverse misuse of figures.

> Latin: 2.19. ne ego quidem intellexi. brevitatem aemulati necessaria quoque orationi subtrahunt verba et, velut satis sit scire ipsos quid dicere velint, quantum ad alios pertineat, nihil putant. ego otiosum sermonem dixerim, quem auditor suo ingenio intelligit., emutatis in perversum dicendi figuris, idem vitium consequuntur.

[¶54] 2.20. Worst of all are the phrases which the Greeks call ἀδιανόητα, that is to say, expressions which, though their meaning is obvious enough on the surface, have a secret meaning, as for example in the phrase cum ductus est caecus secundam viam stare, or where the man, who is supposed in the scholastic theme to have torn his own limbs with his teeth, is said to have lain upon himself Such expressions are regarded as ingenious, daring and eloquent, simply because of their ambiguity, and quite a number of persons have become infected by the belief that a passage which requires a commentator must for that very reason be a masterpiece of elegance.

> Latin: 2.20. vero sunt ἀδιανόητα, hoc est, quae verbis aperta occultos sensus habent, ut cum dictus est caecus secundum viam stare, et, qui suos artus morsu lacerasset, fingitur in scholis supra se cubasse.

[¶55] 2.21. Nay, there is even a class of hearer who find a special pleasure in such passages; for the fact that they can provide an answer to the riddle fills them with an ecstasy of self-congratulation, as if they had not merely heard the phrase, but invented it.

> Latin: 2.21. haec et fortia et ex ancipiti diserta creduntur, pervasitque iam multos ista persuasio, ut id iam demum eleganter atque exquisite dictum putent, quod interpretandum sit. auditoribus etiam nonnullis grata sunt haec, quae cum intellexerunt acumine suo delectantur et gaudent, non quasi audierint sed quasi invenerint.

[¶56] 2.22. For my own part, I regard clearness as the first essential of a good style: there must be propriety in our words, their order must be straightforward, the conclusion of the period must not be long postponed, there must be nothing lacking and nothing superfluous. Thus our language will be approved by the learned and clear to the uneducated. I am speaking solely of clearness in style, as I have already dealt with clearness in the presentation of facts in the rules I laid down for the statement of the case.

> Latin: 2.22. prima sit virtus perspicuitas, propria verba, rectus ordo, non in longum dilata conclusio, nihil neque desit neque superfluat: ita sermo et doctis probabilis et planus imperitis erit. eloquendi observatio. rerum perspicuitas quo modo praestanda sit, diximus in praeceptis narrationis.

[¶57] 2.23. But the general method is the same in both. For if what we say is not less nor more than is required, and is clear and systematically arranged, the whole matter will be plain and obvious even to a not too attentive audience. For we must never forget that the attention of the judge is not always so keen that he will dispel obscurities without assistance, and bring the light of his intelligence to bear on the dark places of our speech. On the contrary, lie will have many other thoughts to distract him unless what we say is so clear that our words will thrust themselves into his mind even when he is not giving us his attention, just as the sunlight forces itself upon the eyes.

> Latin: 2.23. autem ratio est in omnibus. si neque pauciora quam oportet neque plura neque inordinata aut indistincta dixerimus, erunt dilucida et negligenter quoque audientibus aperta; quod et ipsum in consilio est habendum, non semper tam esse acrem iudicis intentionem, ut obscuritatem apud se ipse discutiat et tenebris orationis inferat quoddam intelligentiae suae lumen, sed multis eum frequenter cogitationibus avocari, nisi tam clara fuerint, quae dicemus, ut in animum eius oratio, ut sol in oculos, etiamsi in eam non intendatur, incurrat.

[¶58] 2.24. Therefore our aim must be not to put him in a position to understand our argument, but to force him to understand it. Consequently we shall frequently repeat anything which we think the judge has failed to take in as he should. We shall say, for example, “I fear that this portion of our case has been somewhat obscurely stated: the fault is mine, and I will therefore re-state it in plainer and simpler language ”; for the pretended admission of a fault on our part creates an excellent impression.

> Latin: 2.24. non, ut intelligere possit, sed, ne omnino possit non intelligere, curandum. quod etiam repetimus saepe, quae non satis percepisse eos qui cognoscunt putamus: causa utique nostra culpa dicta obscurius est: ad planiora et communia magis verba descendimus; cum id ipsum optime fiat, quod nos aliquid non optime fecisse simulamus.

[¶59] 3.1. I now come to the subject of ornament, in which, more than in any other department, the orator undoubtedly allows himself the greatest indulgence. For a speaker wins but trifling praise if he does no more than speak with correctness and lucidity; in fact his speech seems rather to be free from blemish than to have any positive merit.

> Latin: 3.1. nunc ad ornatum, in quo sine dubio plus quam in ceteris dicendi partibus sibi indulget orator. emendate quidem ac lucide dicentium tenue praemium est, magisque ut vitiis carere quam ut aliquam magnam virtutem adeptus esse videaris. cum imperitis saepe communis, dispositio modicae doctrinae credi potest;

[¶60] 3.2. Even the untrained often possess the gift of invention, and no great learning need be assumed for the satisfactory arrangement of our matter, while if any more recondite art is required, it is generally concealed, since unconcealed it would cease to be an art, while all these qualities are employed solely to serve the interests of the actual case. On the other hand, by the employment of skilful ornament the orator commends himself at the same time, and whereas his other accomplishments appeal to the considered judgment of the learned, this gift appeals to the enthusiastic approval of the world at large, and the speaker who possesses it fights not merely with effective, but with flashing weapons.

> Latin: 3.2. si quae sunt artes altiores, plerumque occultantur, ut artes sint; denique omnia haec ad utilitatem causarum solam referenda sunt. vero atque ornatu se quoque commendat ipse qui dicit et in ceteris iudicium doctorum, in hoc vero etiam popularem laudem petit, nec fortibus modo, sed etiam fulgentibus armis proeliatur.

[¶61] 3.3. If in his defence of Cornelius Cicero had confined himself merely to instructing the judge and speaking in clear and idiomatic Latin without a thought beyond the interests of his case, would he ever have compelled the Roman people to proclaim their admiration not merely by acclamation, but by thunders of applause? No, it was the sublimity and splendour, the brilliance and the weight of his eloquence that evoked such clamorous enthusiasm.

> Latin: 3.3. in causa Cicero Cornelii consecutus esset docendo iudicem tantum et utiliter demum ac Latine perspicueque dicendo, ut populus Romanus admirationem suam non acclamatione tantum, sed etiam plausu confiteretur? profecto et magnificentia et nitor et auctoritas expressit illum fragorem.

[¶62] 3.4. Nor, again, would his words have been greeted with such extraordinary approbation if his speech had been like the ordinary speeches of every day. In my opinion the audience did not know what they were doing, their applause sprang neither from their judgment nor their will; they were seized with a kind of frenzy and, unconscious of the place in which they stood, burst forth spontaneously into a perfect ecstasy of delight.

> Latin: 3.4. tam insolita laus esset prosecuta dicentem, si usitata et ceteris similis fuisset oratio. ego illos credo, qui aderant, nec sensisse quid facerent nec sponte iudicioque plausisse, sed velut mente captos et quo essent in loco ignaros erupisse in hunc voluptatis adfectum.

[¶63] 3.5. But rhetorical ornament contributes not a little to the furtherance of our case as well. For when our audience find it a pleasure to listen, their attention and their readiness to believe what they hear are both alike increased, while they are generally filled with delight, and sometimes even transported by admiration. The flash of the sword in itself strikes something of terror to the eye, and we should be less alarmed by the thunderbolt if we feared its violence alone, and not its flash as well.

> Latin: 3.5. ne causae quidem parum confert idem hic orationis ornatus., qui libenter audiunt, et magis attendunt et facilius credunt, plerumque ipsa delectatione capiuntur, nonnunquam admiratione auferuntur. et ferrum ipsum adfert oculis terroris aliquid, et fulmina ipsa non tam nos confunderent, si vis eorum tantum, non etiam ipse fulgor timeretur.

[¶64] 3.6. Cicero was right when, in one of his letters to Brutus, he wrote, “Eloquence which evokes no admiration is, in my opinion, unworthy of the name.” Aristotle likewise thinks that the excitement of admiration should be one of our first aims. But such ornament must, as I have already said, be bold, manly and chaste, free from all effeminate smoothness and the false hues derived from artificial dyes, and must glow with health and vigour.

> Latin: 3.6. Cicero his ipsis ad Brutum verbis quadam in epistola scribit, eloquentiam, quae admirationem non habet, nullam iudico. Aristoteles quoque petendam maxime putat. hic ornatus (repetam enim) virilis et fortis et sanctus sit nec effeminatam levitatem et fuco ementitum colorem amet, sanguine et viribus niteat.

[¶65] 3.7. So true is this, that although, where ornament is concerned, vice and virtue are never far apart, those who employ a vicious style of embellishment disguise their vices with the name of virtue. Therefore let none of our decadents accuse me of being an enemy to those who speak with grace and finish. I do not deny the existence of such a virtue, I merely deny that they possess it.

> Latin: 3.7. autem adeo verum est ut, cum in hac maxime parte sint vicina virtutibus vitia, etiam, qui vitiis utuntur, virtutum tamen iis nomen imponant. nemo ex corruptis dicat me inimicum esse culte dicentibus. hanc esse virtutem nego, sed illis eam non tribuo.

[¶66] 3.8. Shall I regard a farm as a model of good cultivation because its owner shows me lilies and violets and anemones and fountains of living water in place of rich crops and vines bowed beneath their clusters? Shall I prefer the barren plane and myrtles trimly clipped, to the fruitful olive and the elm that weds the vine? No, let such luxuries delight the rich: but where would their wealth be if they had nought save these?

> Latin: 3.8. ego fundum cultiorem putem, in quo mihi quis ostenderit lilia et violas et anemonas, fontes surgentes, quam ubi plena messis aut graves fructu vites erunt? platanum tonsasque myrtos quam maritam ulmum et uberes oleas praeoptaverim? illa divites licet, quid essent, si aliud nihil haberent?

[¶67] 3.9. Again, is beauty an object of no consideration in the planting of fruit trees? Certainly not! For my trees must be planted in due order and at fixed intervals. What fairer sight is there than rows of trees planted in échelon which present straight lines to the eye from whatever angle they be viewed? But it has an additional advantage, since this form of plantation enables every tree to derive an equal share of moisture from the soil.

> Latin: 3.9. ergo etiam frugiferis adhibendus est decor? negat? et in ordinem certaque intervalla redigam meas arbores. illo quincunce speciosius qui, in quamcunque partem spectaveris, rectus est? protinus in id quoque prodest, ut terrae sucum aequaliter trahat. in altum cacumina oleae ferro coercebo;

[¶68] 3.10. When the tops of my olive trees rise too high, I lop them away, with the result that their growth expands laterally in a manner that is at once more pleasing to the eye and enables them to bear more fruit owing to the increase in the number of branches. A horse whose flanks are compact is not only better to look upon, but swifter in speed. The athlete whose muscles have been formed by exercise is a joy to the eye, but he is also better fitted for the contests in which he must engage.

> Latin: 3.10. in orbem se formosius fundet et protinus fructum ramis pluribus feret. equus, cuius adstricta ilia, sed idem velocior. Pulcher aspectu est athleta, cuius lacertos exercitatio expressit, idem certamini paratior.

[¶69] 3.11. In fact true beauty and usefulness always go hand in hand. It does not, however, require any special ability to discern the truth of this. It is more important to note that such seemly ornament must be varied to suit the nature of the material to which it is applied. To begin with the primary classification of oratory, the same form of ornament will not suit demonstrative, deliberative and forensic speeches. For the oratory of display aims solely at delighting the audience, and therefore develops all the resources of eloquence and deploys all its ornament, since it seeks not to steal its way into the mind nor to wrest the victory from its opponent, but aims solely at honour and glory.

> Latin: 3.11. vera species ab utilitate dividitur. hoc quidem discernere modici iudicii est. observatione dignius, quod hic ipse honestus ornatus materiae genere esse debebit variatus., ut a prima divisione ordiar, non idem demonstrativis et deliberativis et iudicialibus causis conveniet. illud genus ostentationi compositum solam petit audientium voluptatem, ideoque omnes dicendi artes aperit ornatumque orationis exponit, ut quod non insidietur nec ad victoriam sed ad solum finem laudis et gloriae tendat.