4.13. But if there is such secret power in rhythm and melody alone, this power is found at its strongest in eloquence, and, however important the selection of words for the expression of our thoughts, the structural art which welds them together in the body of a period or rounds them off at the close, has at least an equal claim to importance. For there are some things which, despite triviality of thought and mediocrity of language, may achieve distinction in virtue of this excellence alone.
4.13. numeris ac modis inest quaedam tacita vis, ut oratione ea vehementissima, quantumque interest sensus idem quibus verbis efferatur, tantum, verba eadem qua compositione vel ut textu iungantur vel ut fine claudantur; nam quaedam et sententiis parva et elocutione modica virtus haec sola commendat.
4.14. In fact, if we break up and disarrange any sentence that may have struck us as vigorous, charming or elegant, we shall find that all its force, attraction and grace have disappeared. Cicero in his Orator breaks up some of his own utterances in this way: “Neque me divitiae movent, quibus omnes Africanos et Laelios multi venalicii mercatoresque superarunt. Change the order but a little so that it will run multi superarunt mercatores venaliciique,” and so on. Disarrange these periods in such a manner, and you will find that the shafts you have hurled are broken or wide of the mark.
4.14. quod cuique visum erit vehementer, dulciter, speciose dictum, solvat et turbet: abierit omnis vis, iucunditas, decor. quaedam sua ut Oratore Cicero: me divitiae movent quibus omnis Africanos et Laelios mulli venalicii mercatoresque superarunt. paululum ut sit 'multi superarunt mercatores venaliciique,' et insequentes deinceps periodos; quas si ad illum modum turbes, velut fracta aut transversa tela proieceris.
4.15. Cicero also corrects passages in the speeches of Gracchus where the structure appears to him to be harsh. For Cicero this is becoming enough, but we may content ourselves with testing our own power of welding together in artistic form the disconnected words and phrases which present themselves to us. For why should we seek elsewhere for examples of faults which we may all of us find in our own work? One point, however, it is enough simply to notice—that the more beautiful in thought and language the sentence which you deprive of such structural cohesion, the more hideous will be the effect upon the style, for the very brilliance of the words at once exposes the carelessness of their arrangement.
4.15. corrigit quae a Graccho composita durius putat. decet; nos hac sumus probatione contenti, quod ut scribendo, quae se nobis solutiora obtulerunt, componimus. enim attinet eorum exempla quaerere, quae sibi quisque experiri potest? notasse satis habeo, quo pulchriora et sensu et elocutione dissolveris, hoc orationem magis deformem fore, quia negligentia collocationis ipsa verborum luce deprehenditur.
4.16. Accordingly, although I admit that artistic structure, at any rate in perfection, was the last accomplishment to be attained by oratory, I still hold that even primitive orators regarded it as one of the objects of their study, as far at least as the rudeness of their attainments permitted. For even Cicero for all his greatness will never persuade me that Lysias, Herodotus and Thucydides were careless in this respect.
4.16. ut confiteor, paene ultimam oratoribus artem compositionis, quae quidem perfecta sit, contigisse, ita illis quoque priscis habitam inter curas, ut quantum adhuc profecerant, puto. enim mihi quamlibet magnus auctor Cicero persuaserit, Lysian, Herodotum, Thucydiden parum studiosos eius fuisse. fortasse sint secuti non idem, quod Demosthenes aut Plato, quanquam et ii ipsi inter se dissimiles fuerunt.
4.17. They may not perhaps have pursued the same ideals as Demosthenes and Plato, and even these latter differed in their methods. For it would never have done to spoil the fine and delicate texture of Lysias by the introduction of richer rhythms, since he would thus have lost all that surpassing grace which he derives from his simple and unaffected tone, while he would also have sacrificed the impression of sincerity which he now creates. For it must be remembered that he wrote his speeches for others to deliver, so that it was right that they should suggest a lack of form and artistic structure: indeed his success in producing this effect actually shows his mastery of structure.
4.17. neque illud ut Lysia dicendi textum tenue atque rasum laetioribus numeris corrumpendum erat; perdidisset enim gratiam, quae ut eo maxima est, simplicis atque inadfectati coloris, perdidisset fidem quoque. scribebat alis, non ipse dicebat, ut oportuerit esse illa rudibus et incompositis similia; quod ipsum compositio est.
4.18. Again history, which should move with speed and impetuosity, would have been ill-suited by the halts imposed by the rounding off of the period, by the pauses for breath inevitable in oratory, and the elaborate methods of opening sentences and bringing them to a close. It is however true that in the speeches inserted by historians we may note something in the way of balanced cadences and antitheses. As regards Herodotus, while his flow, in my opinion, is always gentle, his dialect has such a sweetness of its own that it even seems to contain a certain rhythmical power hidden within itself.
4.18. historiae, quae currere debet ac ferri, minus convenissent insistentes clausulae et debita actionibus respiratio et cludendi inchoandique sententias ratio. contionibus quidem etiam similiter cadentia quaedam et contraposita deprehendas. Herodoto vero cum omnia (ut ego quidem sentio) leniter fluunt, tum ipsa διάλεκτος habet eam iucunditatem, ut latentes etiam ut se numeros complexa videatur.
4.19. However I shall speak of the different ideals a little later: my immediate task is to teach the student elementary rules which are essential if correctness of structure is to be attained. There are then in the first place two kinds of style: the one is closely welded and woven together, while the other is of a looser texture such as is found in dialogues and letters, except when they deal with some subject above their natural level, such as philosophy, politics or the like.
4.19. de propositorum diversitate post paulum., quae prius iis, qui recte componere volent, discenda sint. igitur ante omnia oratio alia vincta atque contexta, soluta alia, qualis ut sermone et epistolis, nisi cum aliquid supra naturam suam tractant, ut de philosophia, de re publica, similibus.
4.20. In saying this, I do not mean to deny that even this looser texture has its own peculiar rhythms which are perhaps the most difficult of all to analyse. For dialogues and letters do not demand continual hiatus between vowels or absence of rhythm, but on the other hand they have not the flow or the compactness of other styles, nor does one word lead up so inexorably to another, the structural cohesion being loose rather than non-existent.
4.20. non eo dico, quia non illud quoque solutum habeat suos quosdam et forsitan difficiliores etiam pedes; neque enim aut hiare semper vocalibus aut destitui temporibus volunt sermo atque epistola; sed non fluunt nec cohaerent nec verba verbis trahunt, ut potius laxiora ut his vincula quam nulla sint.
4.21. Again in legal cases of minor importance a similar simplicity will be found to be most becoming, a simplicity, that is to say, that does not dispense with rhythm altogether, but uses rhythms of a different kind, conceals them and employs a certain secrecy in their construction.
4.21. ut causis quoque minoribus decet eadem simplicitas quae non nullis, sed aliis utitur numeris, dissimulatque eos et tantum communit occultius.
4.22. But the more closely welded style is composed of three elements: the comma, or as we call it incisum, the colon, or in Latin menbrum, and the period, which Roman writers call ambitus, circumductum, continuatio or conclusio. Further, in all artistic structure there are three necessary qualities, order, connexion and rhythm. Of these we will first discuss order, which must be considered in connexion with words taken both singly and in conjunction.
4.22. illa connexa series tres habet formas: incisa quae κόμματα dicuntur, membra quae κῶλα, περίοδον, quae est vel ambitus vel circumductum vel continuatio vel conclusio. omni porro compositione tria sunt genera necessaria: ordo, iunctura, numerus.
4.23. Words taken singly are known as asyndeta (unconnected). In dealing with them we must take care that our style does not diminish in force through the fact that a weaker word is made to follow a stronger: as, for example, if after calling a man a despoiler of temples we were to speak of him as a thief, or after styling him a highwayman were to dub him an insolent fellow. For sentences should rise and grow in force: of this an excellent example is provided by Cicero, where he says, “You, with that throat, those lungs, that strength, that would do credit to a prizefighter, in every limb of your body ”; for there each phrase is followed by one stronger than the last, whereas, if he had begun by referring to his whole body, he could scarcely have gone on to speak of his lungs and throat without an anticlimax. There is also another species of order which may be entitled natural, as for example when we speak of “men and women,” “day and night,” “rising and setting,” in preference to the reverse order.
4.23. igitur de ordine. observatio ut verbis est singulis et contextis. sunt, quae ἀσύνδετα diximus. his cavendum, ne decrescat oratio, et fortiori subiungatur aliquid infirmius, ut sacrilege fur, aut latroni petulans. enim debent sententiae et insurgere, ut optime Cicero,, inquit, istis faucibus, istis lateribus, ista gladiatoria totius corporis firmitate. enim maius alii supervenit. si coepisset a toto corpore, non bene ad latera faucesque descenderet. et alius naturalis ordo, ut viros ac feminas, diem ac noctem, ortum et occasum dicas potius quam retrorsum.
4.24. In some cases a change in the order will make a word superfluous: for example, we write fratres gemini rather than gemini fratres (twin-brothers), since if gemini came first, there would be no necessity to add fratres. The rule which some have sought to enforce that nouns should precede verbs, and verbs adverbs, while epithets and pronouns should follow their substantives, is a mere extravagance, since the reverse order is often adopted with excellent effect.
4.24. ordine permutato fiunt supervacua, ut fratres gemini; nam si gemini praecesserint, fratres addere non est necesse. nimia quorundam fuit observatio, ut vocabula verbis, verba rursus adverbiis, nomina appositis et pronominibus essent priora; nam fit contra quoque frequenter non indecore.
4.25. Another piece of extravagant pedantry is to insist that the first place should always be occupied by what is first in order of time: such an order is no doubt often the best, but merely because previous events are often the most important and should consequently be placed before matters of more trivial import.
4.25. non et illud nimiae superstitionis, uti quaeque sint tempore, ea facere etiam ordine priora, non quin frequenter sit hoc melius, sed quia interim plus valent ante gesta, ideoque levioribus superponenda sunt. sensum cludere multo, si compositio patiatur, optimum est;
4.26. If the demands of artistic structure permit, it is far best to end the sentence with a verb: for it is in verbs that the real strength of language resides. But if it results in harshness of sound, this principle must give way before the demands of rhythm, as is frequently the case in the best authors of Rome and Greece. Of course, in every case where a verb does not end the sentence, we shall have an hyperbaton, but hyperbaton is an admitted trope or figure, and therefore is to be regarded as an adornment.
4.26. ut verbis enim sermonis vis est. id asperum erit, cedet haec ratio numeris, ut fit apud summos Graecos Latinosque oratores frequentissime. dubio erit omne, quod non cludet, hyperbaton, sed ipsum hoc inter tropos vel figuras, quae sunt virtutes, receptum est.
4.27. For words are not cut to suit metrical feet, and are therefore transferred from place to place to form the most suitable combinations, just as in the case of unhewn stones their very irregularity is the means of suggesting what other stones they will best fit and what will supply them with the surest resting-place. On the other hand, the happiest effects of language are produced when it is found possible to employ the natural order, apt connexion and appropriate rhythm.
4.27. enim ad pedes verba dimensa sunt, ideoque ex loco transferuntur ut locum, ut iungantur, quo congruunt maxime, sicut ut structura saxorum rudium etiam ipsa enormitas invenit, cui applicari et ut quo possit insistere. tamen sermo est, cui et rectus ordo et apta iunctura et cum his numerus opportune cadens contigit. vero transgressiones et longae sunt nimis, ut superioribus diximus libris, et interim etiam compositione vitiosae, quae ut hoc ipsum petuntur, ut exultent atque lasciviant, quales illae Maecenatis, et aurora rubent plurima.
4.28. Some transpositions are too long, as I have pointed out in previous books, while at times they involve faulty structure, although some writers actually aim at this vicious type of transposition, in order to create an appearance of freedom and license, as in the following phrases from Maecenas, sole et aurora rubent plurima; inter se sacra movit aqua fraxinos; ne exequias quidem unus inter miserrimos viderem meas. The worst feature in these examples, is that he plays pranks with his structure while dealing with a sad theme. It is, however, not infrequently possible to give special significance to a word by placing it at the close of the sentence and thereby stamping and impressing it on the mind of the hearer, whereas if it were placed in the middle of the sentence, it would remain unnoticed, escape the attention and be obscured by its surroundings; the following passage from Cicero will illustrate what I mean: ut tibi necesse esset in conspectu populi Romani vomere postridie.
4.28. se sacra movit aqua fraxinos. exequias quidem unus inter miserrimos viderem meas. inter haec pessimum est, quia ut re tristi ludit compositio. tamen est vehemens aliquis sensus ut verbo, quod si ut media parte sententiae latet, transire intentionem et obscurari circumiacentibus solet, ut clausula positum adsignatur auditori et infigitur, quale illud est Ciceronis, tibi necesse esset ut conspectu populi Romani vomere postridie.
4.30. Transfer the last word to some other position and the effect will be decreased. For the whole passage is made to converge to a point at the end; the disgraceful circumstance of his being forced to vomit has been mentioned and the audience expect nothing more, when the orator adds yet a further revolting feature of the case, namely that he was still unable to retain his food the day after the carouse.
4.30. hoc ultimum: minus valebit. totius ductus hic est quasi mucro, ut per se foeda vomendi necessitas iam nihil ultra exspectantibus hanc quoque adiiceret deformitatem, ut cibus teneri non posset postridie.
4.31. Domitius Afer was in the habit of transferring words at the cadence of the sentence solely for the purpose of harshening his rhythm, more especially in his exordia, as, for example, in his defence of Cloatilla, where he says gratias again continuo, and in his defence of Laelia, where he says, eis utrisque apud te iudicem periclitatur Laelia. To such an extent did he avoid the voluptuous effect of soft and delicate rhythm, that he actually interposed obstacles to break the natural harmonies of his language.
4.31. Afer Domitius traiicere ut clausulas verba tantum asperandae compositionis gratia et maxime ut prooemiis, ut pro Cloatilla, agam continuo, et pro Laelia, utrisque apud te iudicem periclitatur Laelia. refugit teneram delicatamque modulandi voluptatem, ut currentibus per se numeris quod eos inhiberet obiiceret.
4.32. There is a further drawback resulting from the faulty arrangement of words, with which we are all familiar, namely, that it leads to ambiguity. The above remarks will, I think, suffice as a brief summary of the points which require notice in connexion with order. If the order is faulty, our language will be deservedly liable to the charge of lacking artistic construction, however compact and rhythmical it may be. The next point for consideration is connexion, that is to say connexion between words, commata, cola and periods. For all these have merits and defects which turn on the way in which they are linked together.
4.32. quoque fieri vitiosa locatione verborum, nemo est qui nesciat. arbitror, ut ut brevi, de ordine fuisse dicenda; qui si vitiosus est, licet et vincta sit et apte cadens oratio, tamen merito incomposita dicatur. sequitur. ut verbis, incisis, membris, periodis; omnia namque ista et virtutes et vitia ut complexu habent.
4.33. I will follow the natural order and will begin by pointing out that there are some blemishes so obvious that even the uneducated regard them as worthy of censure; I refer to occasions when two consecutive words form some unseemly expression by the coalescence of the last syllable of the first word and the first of the second. Again, there are occasions when vowels clash. When this happens, the language is broken by gaps and interstices and seems to labour. The most unpleasing effects of sound will be produced by the juxtaposition of the same long vowels, while the worst hiatus occurs between vowels which are pronounced hollow- or open-mouthed.
4.33. , ut ordinem sequar, primum sunt quae imperitis quoque ad reprehensionem notabilia videntur, id est, quae, commissis inter se verbis duobus, ex ultima prioris ac prima sequentis syllaba deforme aliquod nomen efficiunt. vocalium concursus; quod cum accidit, hiat et intersistit et quasi laborat oratio. longae, quae easdem inter se litteras committunt, sonabunt. tamen erit hiatus earum, quae cavo aut patulo maxime ore efferuntur.
4.34. E has a flatter, i a narrower sound, and consequently such blemishes are less noticeable where they are concerned. It is a less serious fault to place short vowels after long, a statement which applies even more strongly to placing short vowels before long. But the least unsatisfactory combination is that of two short vowels. And in all conjunctions of vowels, the resulting sound will be proportionately soft or harsh according as they resemble or differ from each other in the method of utterance.
4.34. E planior littera est, i angustior est, ideoque obscurius ut his vitium. peccabit, qui longis breves subiiciet, et adhuc, qui praeponet longae brevem. est ut duabus brevibus offensio. cum aliae subiunguntur aliis, proinde asperiores aut leniores erunt prout oris habitu simili aut diverso pronuntiabuntur.
4.35. On the other hand, hiatus is not to be regarded as so very terrible a crime: in fact I do not know which is the worse fault in this connexion, carelessness or a pedantic solicitude for correctness. For anxiety on this score is bound to check the flow of our language and to divert us from more important considerations. Therefore while it is a sign of carelessness to admit hiatus here, there and everywhere, it is a symptom of grovelling timidity to be continually in terror of it, and there is good reason for the view that all the followers of Isocrates and more especially Theopompus pay accessive attention to the avoidance of this detect.
4.35. tamen id ut crimen ingens expavescendum est, ac nescio negligentia ut hoc an sollicitudo sit peior. Inhibeat enim necesse est hic metus impetum dicendi et a potioribus avertat. ut negligentiae passim hoc pati, ita humilitatis ubique perhorrescere, nimiosque non immerito ut hac cura putant omnes Isocraten secutos praecipueque Theopompum.
4.36. On the other hand Demosthenes and Cicero show a sense of proportion in the way in which they face the problem. For the coalescence of two letters, known as συναλοιφή, may make our language run more smoothly than if every word closed with its own vowel, while sometimes hiatus may even prove becoming and create an impression of grandeur, as in the following case, pulchra oratione ista iacta te. For syllables which are naturally long and rich in sound gain something from the time which intervenes between two vowels, as though there were a perceptible pause.
4.36. Demosthenes et Cicero modice respexerunt ad hanc partem. et coeuntes litterae, quae συναλιφαί dicuntur, etiam leviorem faciunt orationem, quam si omnia verba suo fine cludantur, et nonnunquam hiulca etiam decent faciuntque ampliora quaedam: ut oratione ista iacta te cum longae per se et velut opimae syllabae aliquid etiam medii temporis inter vocales, quasi intersistatur, adsumunt.
4.37. I cannot do better than quote the words of Cicero on this subject. Hiatus, he says, and the meeting of vowels produce a certain softness of effect, such as to suggest a not unpleasing carelessness on the part of the orator, as though he were more anxious about his matter than his words. But consonants also are liable to conflict at the juncture of words, more especially those letters which are comparatively harsh in sound; as for instance when the final s of one word clashes with x at the opening of the next. Still more unpleasing is the hissing sound produced by the collision between a pair of these consonants, as in the phrase ars studiorum.
4.37. de re utar Ciceronis potissimum verbis., inquit, ille tanquam hiatus et concursus vocalium molle quiddam, et quod indicet non ingratam negligentiam de re hominis magis quam de verbis laborantis. consonantes quoque, earumque praecipue quae sunt asperiores, ut commissura verborum rixantur, ut si s ultima cum x proxima confligat, quarum tristior etiam, si binae collidantur, stridor est, ut studiorum.
4.38. This was the reason why Servius, as he himself has observed, dropped the final s, whenever the next word began with a consonant, a practice for which Luranius takes him to task, while Messala defends him. For he thinks that Lucilius did not pronounce the final s in phrases such as, Aeserninus fuit and dignus locoque, while Cicero in his Orator records that this was the practice with many of the ancients.
4.38. fuit causa et Servio, ut dixit, subtrahendae s litterae, quotiens ultima esset aliaque consonante susciperetur; quod reprehendit Luranius, Messala defendit. neque Lucilium putat uti eadem ultima, cum dicit Aeserninus fuit et dignus locoque, et Cicero ut Oratore plures antiquorum tradit sic locutos.
4.39. Hence we get forms such as belligerare and pomeridiem, to which the diee hanc of Cato the Censor, where the final m is softened into an e, presents an analogy. Unlearned readers are apt to alter such forms when they come across them in old books, and in their desire to decry the ignorance of the scribes convict themselves of the same fault.
4.39. belligerare, pomeridiem, et illa Censori Catonis hanc, aeque m littera in e mollita. in veteribus libris reperta mutare imperiti solent, et dum librariorum insectari volunt inscientiam, suam confitentur.
4.40. On the other hand, whenever this same letter m comes at the end of a word and is brought into contact with the opening vowel of the next word in such a manner as to render coalescence possible, it is, although written, so faintly pronounced ( e.g. in phrases such as nultum ille and quantum erat ) that it may almost be regarded as producing the sound of a new letter. For it is not elided, but merely obscured, and may be considered as a symbol occurring between two vowels simply to prevent their coalescence.
4.40. eadem illa littera, quotiens ultima est et vocalem verbi sequentis ita contingit, ut ut eam transire possit, etiamsi scribitur, tamen parum exprimitur, ut ille et erat, adeo ut paene cuiusdam novae litterae sonum reddat. enim eximitur, sed obscuratur et tantum ut hoc aliqua inter duas vocales velut nota est, ne ipsae coeant.
4.41. Care must also be taken that the last syllables of one word are not identical with the opening syllables of the next. In case any of my readers should wonder that I think it worth while to lay down such a rule, I may point out that Cicero makes such a slip in his Letters, in the sentence res mihi invisae visae sunt, Brute, and in the following line of verse,Ofortunatam natam me consule Romam.
4.41. etiam, ne syllabae verbi prioris ultimae et primae sequentis sint eaedem; quod ne quis praecipi miretur, Ciceroni ut epistolis excidit, mihi invisae visae sunt, Brute, et ut carmine,O fortunatam natam me Consule Romam.Etiam monosyllaba, si plura sunt, male continuabuntur, quia necesse est compositio multis clausulis concisa subsultet.
4.42. Again it is a blemish to have too many monosyllables in succession, since the inevitable result is that, owing to the frequency of the pauses, the rhythm degenerates into a series of jerks. For the same reason we must avoid placing a number of short verbs and nouns in succession; the converse also is true as regards long syllables, since their accumulation makes our rhythm drag. It is a fault of the same class to end a number of successive sentences with similar cadences, terminations and inflexions.
4.42. etiam brevium verborum ac nominum vitanda continuatio et ex diverso quoque longorum; adfert enim quandam dicendi tarditatem. quoque vitia sunt eiusdem loci, si cadentia similiter et similiter desinentia et eodem mode declinata multa iunguntur.
4.43. It is likewise inartistic to accumulate long series of verbs, nouns or other parts of speech, since even merits produce tedium unless they have the saving grace of variety.
4.43. verba quidem verbis aut nomina nominibus similiaque his continuari decet, cum virtutes etiam ipsae taedium pariant nisi gratia varietatis adiutae.
4.44. The principles by which the connexion of words is guided are not sufficient in the case of commata and cola, though even here beginnings and ends should harmonise; but our structural effect will very largely depend on the relative order of these two types of clause. For in the following instance vomens frustis esculentis gremium suum el totum tribunal implevit [the order is satisfactory, since the fact of his having filled the whole judgement seat with his vomiting is the more important of the two]. On the other hand (for I shall repeat the same illustrations for different purposes to make them more familiar) in the following passage, saxa alque solitudines voci respondent, bestiae saepe immanes cantu flectuntur atque consistunt, the gradation would be improved, if it were reversed: for it is a greater miracle to move rocks than wild beasts: but the claims of structural grace have carried the day. However, let us pass to the consideration of rhythm.
4.44. incisorumque iunctura non ea modo est observanda quae verborum, quanquam et ut his extrema ac prima coeunt, sed plurimum refert compositionis, quae quibus anteponas. et vomens frustis esculentis gremium suum et totum tribunal implevit … et contra (nam frequentius utar iisdem diversarum quoque rerum exemplis, quo sint magis familiaria) atque solitudines voci respondent, bestiae saepe immanes cantu flectuntur atque consistent magis insurgebat, si verteretur; nam plus est saxa quam bestias commoveri, vicit tamen compositionis decor. transeamus ad numeros. structura ac dimensio et copulatio vocum constat aut numeris (numeros ῥυθμούς accipi volo) aut μέτροις, id est dimensione quadam., etiamsi constat utrumque pedibus, habet tamen non simplicem differentiam.
4.46. All combination, arrangement and connexion of words involves either rhythms (which we call numeri ), or metres, that is, a certain measure. Now though both rhythm and metre consist of feet, they differ in more than one respect. For in the first place rhythm consists of certain lengths of time, while metre is determined by the order in which these lengths are arranged. Consequently the one seems to be concerned with quantity and the other with quality. Rhythm may depend on equal balance,
4.46. primum numeri spatio temporum constant, metra etiam ordine, ideoque alterum esse quantitatis videtur, alterum qualitatis. ῥυθμὸς est aut par ut dactylicus, una enim syllaba longa par est duabus brevibus (est quidem vis eadem et aliis pedibus, sed nomen illud tenet;
4.47. as in the case of dactylic rhythm, where one long syllable balances two short, (there are it is true other feet of which this statement is equally true, but the title of dactylic has been currently applied to all, while even boys are well aware that a long syllable is equivalent to two beats and a short to one) or it may consist of feet in which one portion is half as long again as the other, as is the case with paeanic rhythm (a paean being composed of one long followed by three shorts, three shorts followed by one long or with any other arrangement preserving the proportion of three beats to two) or finally one part of the foot may be twice the length of the other, as in the case of the iambus, which is composed of a short followed by a long, or of the choreus consisting of a long followed by a short.
4.47. longam esse duorum temporum, brevem unius, etiam pueri sciunt) aut sescuplex ut paeonicus: is est ex longa et tribus brevibus, aut ex tribus brevibus et longa, vel alio quoquo modo ut tempora tria ad duo relata sescuplum faciant; aut duplex, ut iambus (nam est ex brevi et longa) quique est ei contrarius.
4.48. These feet are also employed by metre, but with this difference, that in rhythm it does not matter whether the two shorts of the dactyl precede or follow the long; for rhythm merely takes into account the measurement of the time, that is to say, it insists on the time taken from its rise to its fall being the same. The measure of verse on the other hand is quite different; the anapaest (u u ) or spondee ( _) cannot be substituted at will for the dactyl, nor is it a matter of indifference whether the paean begins or ends with short syllables.
4.48. hi et metrici pedes, sed hoc interest, quod rhythmo indifferens, dactylicusne ille priores habeat breves an sequentes; tempus enim solum metitur, ut a sublatione ad positionem idem spatii sit. alia dimensio est versuum; pro dactylico poni non poterit anapaestus aut spondeus, nec paean eadem ratione brevibus incipiet ac desinet.
4.49. Further, the laws of metre not merely refuse the substitution of one foot for another, but will not even admit the arbitrary substitution of any dactyl or spondee for any other dactyl or spondee. For example, in the linePanditur snterea domus omnipotentis Olympithe alteration of the order of the dactyls would destroy the verse.
4.49. solum alium pro alio pedem metrorum ratio non recipit, sed ne dactylum quidem aut forte spondeum alterum pro altero. si quinque continuos dactylos, ut sunt ut illointerea domus omnipotentis Olympiconfundas, solveris versum.
4.50. There are also the following differences, that rhythm has unlimited space over which it may range, whereas the spaces of metre are confined, and that, whereas metre has certain definite cadences, rhythm may run on as it commenced until it reaches the point of μεταβολή, or transition to another type of rhythm: further, metre is concerned with words alone, while rhythm extends also to the motion of the body.
4.50. et illa discrimina, quod rhythmis libera spatia, metris finita sunt, et his certae clausulae, illi, quomodo coeperant, currunt usque ad μεταβολήν, id est transitum ad aliud rhythmi genus, et quod metrum ut verbis modo, rhythmos etiam ut corporis motu est.
4.51. Again rhythm more readily admits of rests although they are found in metre as well. Greater license is, however, admitted when the time is measured by the beat of the feet or fingers, and the intervals are distinguished by certain symbols indicating the number of shorts contained within a given space: hence we speak of four or five time ( τετράσημοι, or πεντάσημοι ) and others longer still, the Greek σημεῖον indicating a single beat.
4.51. quoque tempora rhythmi facilius accipient, quanquam haec et ut metris accidunt. tamen illic licentia est, ubi tempora etiam [animo] metiuntur et pedum et digitorum ictu, et intervalla signant quibusdam notis atque aestimant, quot breves illud spatium habeat; inde τετράσημοι, πεντάσημοι deinceps longiores fiunt percussiones; nam σημεῖον tempus est unum.
4.52. In prose the rhythm should be more definite and obvious to all. Consequently, it depends on feet, by which I mean metrical feet, which occur in oratory to such an extent that we often let slip verses of every kind without being conscious of the fact, while everything written in prose can be shown by analysis to consist of short lines of verse of certain kinds or sections of the same.
4.52. compositione orationis certior et magis omnibus aperta servari debet dimensio. igitur ut pedibus et metricis quidem pedibus, qui adeo reperiuntur ut oratione, ut ut ea frequenter non sentientibus nobis omnium generum excidant versus; et contra nihil non, quod est prosa scriptum, redigi possit ut quaedam versiculorum genera vel ut membra, sicut ut molestos incidimus grammaticos, quorum fuerunt, qui velut lyricorum quorundam carmina ut varias mensuras coegerunt.
4.53. For example, I have come across tiresome grammarians who attempted to force prose into definite metres, as though it were a species of lyric poetry. Cicero, indeed, frequently asserts that the whole art of prose-structure consists in rhythm and is consequently censured by some critics on the ground that he would fetter our style by the laws of rhythm.
4.53. Cicero frequentissime dicit totum hoc constare numeris, ideoque reprehenditur a quibusdam, tanquam orationem ad rhythmos adliget.
4.54. For these numeri, as he himself expressly asserts, are identical with rhythm, and he is followed in this by Virgil, who writes,Numeros memini, si verba teneremand Horace, who says,NumerisqueferturLege solutis.
4.54. sunt numeri rhythmi, ut et ipse constituit, et secuti eum Vergilius, cum dicitmemini, si verba tenerem,et Horatiusfertursolutis.
4.55. Among others they attack Cicero's statement that the thunderbolts of Demosthenes would not have such force but for the rhythm with which they are whirled and sped upon their way. If by rhythmis contorta he really means what his critics assert, I do not agree with him. For rhythms have, as I have said, no fixed limit or variety of structure, but run on with the same rise and fall till they reach their end, and the style of oratory will not stoop to be measured by the beat of the foot or the fingers.
4.55. invadunt ergo hanc inter ceteras vocem: enim Demosthenis fulmina tantopere vibratura dicit, nisi numeris contorta ferrentur. quo si hoc sentit rhythmis contorta, dissentio. rhythmi, ut dixi, neque finem habent certum nec ullam ut contextu varietatem, sed qua coeperunt sublatione ac positione, ad finem usque decurrunt; oratio non descendet ad crepitum digitorum et pedum.
4.56. This fact is clearly understood by Cicero, who frequently shows that the sense in which he desires that prose should be rhythmical is rather that it should not lack rhythm, a deficiency which would stamp the author as a man of no taste or refinement, than that it should be tied by definite rhythmical laws, like poetry; just as, although we may not wish certain persons to be professional gymnasts, we still do not wish them to be absolutely ignorant of the art of gynmastics.
4.56. Cicero optime videt ac testatur frequenter se quod numerosum sit quaerere, ut magis non ἀπάλαιστοι. quod esset inscitum atque agreste, quam ἔνρυθμον, quod poeticum est, esse compositionem velit; sicut etiam quos palaestritas esse nolumus, tamen esse nolumus eos qui dicuntur ἀπάλαιστοι.
4.57. But the rounding of the period to an appropriate close which is produced by the combination of feet requires some name; and what name is there more suitable than rhythm, that is to say, the rhythm of oratory, just as the enthymeme is the syllogism of oratory? For my own part, to avoid incurring the calumny, from which even Cicero was not free, I ask my reader, whenever I speak of the rhythm of artistic structure (as I have done on every occasion), to understand that I refer to the rhythm of oratory, not of verse.
4.57. ea quae efficitur e pedibus apta conclusio nomen aliquod desiderat. sit igitur potius quam numerus, sed oratorius numerus, ut enthymema rhetoricus syllogismus? certe, ne ut calumniam cadam, qua ne M. quidem Tullius caruit, posco hoc mihi, ut, cum de compositionis dixero numero et ubicunque iam dixi,oratorium dicere intelligar.
4.58. It is the task of collocation to link together the words which have been selected, approved and handed over to its custody. For even harsh connexions are better than those which are absolutely valueless. None the less I should allow the orator to select certain words for their euphony, provided always that their force and meaning are the same as those of the alternative words. He may also be permitted to add words, provided they are not superfluous, and to omit them, provided they are not essential to the sense, while he may employ figures to alter case and number, since such variety is attractive in itself, quite apart from the fact that it is frequently adopted for the sake of the rhythm.
4.58. autem verba iam probata et electa et velut adsignata sibi debet connectere; nam vel dure inter se commissa potiora sunt inutilibus. et eligere quaedam, dum ex iis quae idem significent atque idem valeant, permiserim, et adiicere dum non otiosa, et detrahere dum non necessaria, et figuris mutare casus atque numeros, quorum varietas frequenter gratia compositionis adscita etiam suo nomine solet esse iucunda.
4.59. Again if reason demand one form and usage another, the claims of rhythm will decide our choice between the two, e.g. between vitavisse and vitasse or between deprehendere and deprendere. Further I do not object to the coalescence of syllables or anything that does no injury either to sense or style.
4.59. ubi aliud ratio, aliud consuetudo poscet, utrum volet, sumat compositio, vitavisse vel vitasse, deprehendere vel deprendere. etiam syllabarum non negabo, et quidquid sententiis aut elocutioni non nocebit. tamen ut hoc opus est, scire quod quoque loco verborum maxime quadret.
4.60. The most important task, however, is to know what word is best fitted to any given place. And the most accomplished artist will be the man who does not arrange his words solely with a view to rhythmic effect. On the other hand the management of feet is far more difficult in prose than in verse, first because there are but few feet in a single line of verse which is far shorter than the lengthy periods of prose; secondly because each line of verse is always uniform and its movement is determined by a single definite scheme, whereas the structure of prose must be varied if it is to avoid giving offence by its monotony and standing convicted of affectation.
4.60. is optime componet, qui hoc non solum componendi gratia facit. vero pedum ut oratione est multo quam ut versu difficilior: primum quod versus paucis continetur, oratio longiores habet saepe circuitus; deinde quod versus semper similis sibi est et una ratione decurrit, orationis compositio, nisi varia est, et offendet similitudine et ut adfectatione deprehenditur.
4.61. Rhythm pervades the whole body of prose through all its extent. For we cannot speak without employing the long and short syllables of which feet are composed. Its presence is, however, most necessary and most apparent at the conclusion of the period, firstly because every group of connected thoughts has its natural limit and demands a reasonable interval to divide it from the commencement of what is to follow: secondly because the ear, after following the unbroken flow of the voice and being carried along down the stream of oratory, finds its best opportunity of forming a sound judgement on what it has heard, when the rush of words comes to a halt and gives it time for consideration.
4.61. ut omni quidem corpore totoque (ut ita dixerim) tractu numerus insertus est; neque enim loqui possumus nisi syllabis brevibus ac longis, ex quibus pedes fiunt. tamen et desideratur ut clausulis et apparet, primum quia sensus omnis habet suum finem poscitque naturale intervallum, quo a sequentis initio dividatur, deinde quod aures continuam vocem secutae ductaeque velut prono decurrentis orationis flumine tum magis iudicant, cum ille impetus stetit et intuendi tempus dedit.
4.62. Consequently all harshness and abruptness must be avoided at this point, where the mind takes breath and recovers its energy. It is there that style has its citadel, it is this point that excites the eager expectation of the audience, it is from this that the declaimer wins all his glory. Next to the conclusion of the period, it is the beginning which claims the most care: for the audience have their attention fixed on this as well.
4.62. igitur durum sit neque abruptum, quo animi velut respirant ac reficiuntur. est sedes orationis, hoc auditor exspectat, hic laus omnis declamantium. Proximam clausulis diligentiam postulant initia; nam et ut haec intentus auditor est.
4.63. But the opening of the sentence presents less difficulty, since it is independent and is not the slave of what has preceded. It merely takes what has preceded as a starting point, whereas the conclusion coheres with what has preceded, and however carefully constructed, its elegance will be wasted, if the path which leads up to it be interrupted. Hence it is that although the rhythmical structure adopted by Demosthenes in the passage τοῖς φεοῖς εὔχομαι πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις; and again in another passage (approved by all, I think, except Brutus) κἄν μήπω βάλλῃ μηδὲ τοξεύῃ, is regarded as severely correct, Cicero is criticised for passages such as familiaris coeperat esse balneatori and for the not less unpleasing archipiratae.
4.63. eorum facilior ratio est, non enim cohaerent aliis nec praecedentibus serviunt; exordium sumunt cum clausula cum praecedentibus cohaereat: quamlibet sit enim composita ipsa, gratiam perdet, si ad eam rupta via venerimus. eo fit, ut, cum Demosthenis seuera videatur compositio, τοῖς θεοῖς εὔχομαι πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις; et illa (quae ab uno, quod sciam, Bruto minus probatur, ceteris placet) κἂν μήπω βάλλῃ μηδὲ τοξεύῃ, Ciceronem carpant ut his, coeperat esse balneatori, et non minus dura archipiratae.
4.64. For although balneatori and archipiratae give exactly the same cadence as πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις and μηδὲ τοξεύῃ the former are more severely correct. There is also something in the fact that in the passages from Cicero two feet are contained in one word, a practice which even in verse produces an unduly effeminate effect, and that not merely when the line ends with a five-syllable word as in fortissima Tyndaridarum but also in four-syllable endings such as Appnnino, armamentis and Oreione.
4.64. balneatori et archipiratae idem finis est qui πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις et qui μηδὲ τοξεύῃ sed priora sunt severiora. ut eo quoque nonnihil, quod hic singulis verbis bini pedes continentur, quod etiam ut carminibus est praemolle; nec solum ubi quinae, ut ut his, syllabae nectuntur, Tyndaridarum, sed etiam quaternae, cum versus cluditur Appennino et armamentis et Orione.
4.66. Consequently we must also avoid ending our periods with words containing too many syllables. With regard to the middle portions of our periods we must take care not merely that they possess internal cohesion, but also that the rhythm is neither sluggish nor long, and above all that we do not fall into the now fashionable fault of placing a number of short syllables together with the result that we produce an effect not unlike the sound of a child's rattle.
4.66. hoc quoque vitandum est, ne plurium syllabarum verbis utamur ut fine. quoque non ea modo cura sit, ut inter se cohaereant, sed ne pigra, ne longa sint, ne, quod nunc maxime vitium est, brevium contextu resultent ac sonum reddant paene puerilium crepitaculorum. ut initia clausulaeque plurimum momenti habent, quotiens incipit sensus aut desinit, sic ut mediis quoque sunt quidam conatus iique leviter insistunt.
4.67. For while the beginnings and conclusions of periods, where the sense begins or ends, are the most important, it is none the less the fact that the middle portion may involve some special efforts which necessitate slight pauses. Remember that the feet of a runner, even though they do not linger where they fall, still leave a footprint. Consequently not only must commata and cola begin and end becomingly, but even in parts which are absolutely continuous without a breathing space, there must be such almost imperceptible pauses.
4.67. pes, etiamsi non moratur, tamen vestigium facit. non modo membra atque incisa bene incipere atque cludi decet, sed etiam ut iis, quae non dubie contexta sunt nec respiratione utuntur, illi velut occulti gradus sint.
4.68. Who, for example, can doubt that there is but one thought in the following passage and that it should be pronounced without a halt for breath? Animadverti, idlices, omnem accusatoris oralionem in duas divisan esse parties Still the groups formed by the first two words, the next three, and then again by the next two and three, have each their own special rhythms and cause a slight check in our breathing: at least such is the opinion of specialists in rhythm.
4.68. enim dubitet, unum sensum ut hoc et unum spiritum esse?, iudices, omnem accusatoris orationem ut duas divisam esse partes; tamen et duo prima verba et tria proxima et deinceps duo rursus ac tria suos quasi numeros habent et spiritum sustinemus, sicut apud rhythmicos aestimantur.
4.69. And just in proportion as these small segments of the period are grave or vigorous, slow or rapid, languid or the reverse, so will the periods which they go to form be severe or luxuriant, compact or loose.
4.69. particulae prout sunt graves, acres, lentae, celeres, remissae, exultantes, proinde id, quod ex illis conficitur, aut severum aut luxuriosum aut quadratum aut solutum erit.
4.70. Again, the conclusions of clauses sometimes seem to halt or hang, if they are regarded apart from their context, but are usually caught up and supported by what follows, so that what seemed a faulty cadence is corrected by the continuation. Non vult populus Romanus obsoletis criminibus accusari Verrem would be harsh in rhythm, if the sentence ended there; but when it is continued with what follows, nova postulat, inaudita desiderat, although the words are separate in meaning, the rhythmical effect is preserved.
4.70. etiam clausulae sunt claudae atque pendentes, si relinquantur, sed sequentibus suscipi ac sustineri solent, eoque facto vitium, quod erat ut fine, continuatione emendatur. vult populus Romanus obsoletis criminibus accusari Verrem durum, si desinas; sed cum sit continuatum iis quae sequuntur, quanquam natura ipsa divisa sunt, postulat, inaudita desiderat, salvus est cursus.
4.71. Ut adeas, tantum dabis would be a bad conclusion, for it forms the last portion of an iambic trimeter: but it is followed by ut cibum vestitumque introferre liceat, tantum: the rhythm is still abrupt but is strengthened and supported by the last phrase of all, nemo recusabat.
4.71. adeas, tantum dabis male cluderet, nam et interim versus pars ultima est; excipit cibum vestitumque introferre liceat, tantum; praeceps adhuc firmatur ac sustinetur ultimo recusabat.
4.72. The appearance of a complete verse in prose has a most uncouth effect, but even a portion of a verse is ugly, especially if the last half of a verse occurs in the cadence of a period or the first half at the beginning. The reverse order may on the other hand often be positively pleasing, since at times the first half of a verse will make an excellent conclusion, provided that it does not cover more than a few syllables.
4.72. ut oratione fieri multo foedissimum est totum, sed etiam ut parte deforme, utique si pars posterior ut clausula deprehendatur aut rursus prior ut ingressu. idem contra saepe etiam decet, quia et claudit interim optime prima pars versus, dum intra paucas syllabas, praecipue senarii atque octonarii.
4.73. This is especially the case with the senarnis or octonarius. In Aliica fuisse is the opening of a senarius and closes the first clause of the pro Ligario: esse videatur, with which we are now only too familiar as a conclusion, is the beginning of an ocionarius. Similar effects are to be found in Demosthenes, as for example πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις and πᾶσιν ὑμῖν and throughout almost the whole exordium of that speech. The ends of verses are also excellently suited to the beginning of a period:
4.73. Africa fuisse initium senarii est, primum pro Q. Ligario caput claudit; uideatur, iam nimis frequens, octonarium inchoat; talia sunt Demosthenis, πᾶσι καὶ πάσαις et πᾶσιν ὑμῖν, et totum paene principium. ultima versuum initio conveniunt orationis:
4.74. etsi vereor, iudices, for example and animadverti, iudices. But the opening feet of a verse are not suited to the opening phrases of prose: Livy provides an example of this in his preface, which begins with the first half of a hexameter, 'Facturusne operae premium sim:' for these are the words as he wrote them, and they are better so than as they have been corrected. Again, the cadence of a verse is not suitable to the cadence of a period: compare the phrase of Cicero, Quo me vertam, nescio, which is the end of a trimeter.
4.74. vereor, iudices, et, iudices. initia initiis non convenient, ut T. Livius hexametri exordio coepit: operae pretium sim (nam ita edidit, estque melius, quam quo modo emendatur), nec clausulae clausulis, ut Cicero, me vertam, nescio, qui trimetri finis est.
4.75. It matters not whether we speak of a trimeter or of a senarius, since the line has six feet and three beats. The end of a hexameter forms a yet worse conclusion; compare the following passage from the letters of Brutus: neque illi malunt halbere tutores aut defensores, quoniam causam sciunt placuiisse Catoni.
4.75. et senarium promiscue dicere licet, sex enim pedes, tres percussiones habet. cludit finis hexametri, ut Brutus ut epistolis: illi malunt habere tutores aut defensores, quoniam causam sciunt placuisse Catoni.
4.76. Iambic endings are less noticeable, because that metre is near akin to prose. Consequently such lines often slip from us unawares: they are specially common in Brutus as a result of his passion for severity of style; they are not infrequent in Asinius, and are sometimes even found in Cicero, as for example at the very beginning of his speech against Lucius Piso: Pro di immortales, qui hic nunc illuxit dies?
4.76. minus sunt notabiles, quia hoc genus sermoni proximum est. et versus hi fere excidunt, quos Brutus ipso componendi durius studio saepissime facit, non raro Asinius, sed etiam Cicero nonnunquam, ut ut principio statim orationis ut Lucium Pisonem: di immortales, qui hic nunc illuxit dies?
4.77. Equal care must however be taken to avoid any phrase of a definitely metrical character, such as the following passage from Sallust: Falso queritur de natura sua. For although the language of prose is bound by certain laws, it should appear to be free. None the less Plato, despite the care which he devotes to his rhythm, has not succeeded in avoiding this fault at the very opening of the Timaeus, where we are met at the very outset with the opening of a hexameter, which is followed by a colon which can be scanned as an Anacreontic, or if you like, as a trimeter, while it is also possible to form what the Greeks call a πενθημιμερὲς (that is a portion of the hexameter composed of two feet and a part of a third): and all these instances occur within the space of three lines.
4.77. minore autem cura vitandum est quidquid est ἔνρυθμον, quale apud Sallustium, queritur de natura sua. enim vincta sit, tamen soluta videri debet oratio. Plato, diligentissimus compositionis, ut Timaeo prima statim parte vitare ista non potuit.
4.78. Again Thucydides has allowed to slip from his pen a phrase of the most effeminate rhythm in ὑπὲρ ἥμισυ Κᾶρες ἐφάνησαν But, having stated that all prose rhythm consists of feet, I must say something on these as well.
4.78. et initium hexametri statim invenias, et Anacreontion protinus colon efficias, et si velis trimetron, et quod duobus pedibus et parte πενθημιμερές a Graecis dicitur, et haec omnia ut tribus versibus; et Thucydidi ὑπὲρ ἥμισυ … κᾶρες ἐφάνησαν ex mollissimo rhythmorum genere excidit.
4.79. Different names are given to these feet, and it is necessary to determine what we shall call each of them. For my part I propose to follow Cicero (for he himself followed the most eminent Greek authorities), with this exception, that in my opinion a foot is never more than three syllables long, whereas Cicero includes the paean and the dochmiac (u – – u –), of which the former has four and the latter as many as five syllables.
4.79. quia omnem compositionem oratoriam constare pedibus dixi, aliqua de his quoque; quorum nomina quia varia traduntur, constituendum est, quo quemque appellemus. Ciceronem sequar, (nam is eminentissimos Graecorum est secutus) excepto quod pes mihi tris syllabas non videtur excedere, quanquam ille paeane dochmioque, quorum prior ut quattuor, secundus ut quinque excurrit, utatur.