6.25. Do not nouns which are similar in the nominative show, as I have already observed, quite different terminations in the oblique eases? Compare uirgo and Iuno, lusus and fusus, caspis and puppis and a thousand others. Again some nouns are not used in the plural, while others are not used in the singular, some are indeclinable, while others, like Jupiter, in the oblique cases entirely abandon the form of the nominative.
6.25. vero quod, ut dicebam, similes positiones in longe diversas figures per obliquos casus exeunt, ut virgo Iuno, lusus lusus, cuspis puppis et mille alia? cum illud etiam accidat, ut quaedam pluraliter non dicantur, quaedam contra singulari numero, quaedam casibus careant, quaedam a primis statim positionibus tota mutentur, ut Iuppiter.
6.26. The same is true of verbs: for instance fero disappears in the perfect and subsequent tenses. Nor does it matter greatly whether such forms are nonexistent or too harsh to use. For what is the genitive singular of progenies or the genitive plural of spes? Or how will quire and ruere form a perfect passive or passive participles.
6.26. verbis etiam accidit ut illi fero, cuius praeteritum perfectum et ulterius non invenitur. plurimum refert, nulla haec an praedura sint. quid progenies genitivo singulari, quid plurali spes faciet? autem quire et ruere vel in praeterita patiendi modo vel in participia transibunt?
6.27. Why should I mention other words when it is even doubtful whether the genitive of senatus is senati or senatus? In view of what I have said, it seems to me that the remark, that it is one thing to speak Latin and another to speak grammar, was far from unhappy. So much for analogy, of which I have said more than enough.
6.27. de aliis dicam, cum senatus senati an senatus faciat, incertum sit? mihi non invenuste dici videtur, aliud esse Latine aliud grammatice loqui. de analogia nimium.
6.28. Etymology inquires into the origin of words, and was called notation by Cicero, on the ground that the term used by Aristotle is σύμβολον, which may be translated by nota. A literal rendering of ἐτυμολογία would be ueriloquium, a form which even Cicero, its inventor, shrinks from using. Some again, with an eye to the meaning of the word, call it origination. Etymology is sometimes of the utmost use, whenever the word under discussion needs interpretation.
6.28. , quae verborum originem inquirit, a Cicerone dicta est notatio, quia nomen eius apud Aristotelem invenitur σύμβολον, quod est nota; nam verbum ex verbo ductum, id est veriloquium, ipse Cicero, qui finxit, reformidat. qui vim potius intuiti originationem vocent.
6.29. For instance Marcus Caelius wishes to prove that he is homo frugi, not because he is abstemious (for he could not even pretend to be that), but because he is useful to many, that is fructuosus, from which frugalitas is derived. Consequently we find room for etymology when we are concerned with definitions.
6.29. habet aliquando usum necessarium, quotiens interpretatione res, de qua quaeritur, eget, ut M. Caelius se esse hominem frugi vult probare, non quia abstinens sit (nam id ne ementiri quidem poterat), sed quia utilis multis, id est fructuosus, unde sit ducta frugalitas. in definitionibus assignatur etymologiae locus.
6.30. Sometimes again this science attempts to distinguish between correct forms and barbarisms, as for instance when we are discussing whether we should call Sicily Triquetra or Triquedra, or say meridies or medidies, not to mention other words which depend on current usage.
6.30. etiam barbara ab emendatis conatur discernere, ut cum, dici Siciliam an Triquedram, meridiem an medidiem oporteat quaeritur, aliaque quae consuetudini serviunt.
6.31. Such a science demands profound erudition, whether we are dealing with the large number of words which are derived from the Greek, more especially those inflected according to the practice of the Aeolic dialect, the form of Greek which most nearly resembles Latin; or are using ancient historians as a basis for inquiry into the origin of names of men, places, nations and cities. For instance what is the origin of names such as Brutus, Publicola, or Pythicus? Why do we speak of Latium, Italia or Beneventum? What is the reason for employing such names as Capitolium, collis Quirinalis or Argietum?
6.31. autem in se multam eruditionem, sive ex Graecis orta tractemus, quae sunt plurima, praecipueque Aeolica ratione (cui est sermo noster simillimus) declinata, sive ex historiarum veterum notitia nomina hominum, locorum, gentium, urbium requiramus, unde Bruti, Publicolae, Pythici? cur Latium, Italia, Beneventum? quae Capitolium et collem Quirinalem et Argiletum appellandi ratio?
6.32. I now turn to minor points concerning which enthusiasts for etymology give themselves an infinity of trouble, restoring to their true form words which have become slightly altered: the methods which they employ are varied and manifold: they shorten them or lengthen them, add, remove, or interchange letters and syllables as the case may be. As a result perverseness of judgment leads to the most hideous absurdities. I am ready to admit that consul may be derived from consulere in the sense of consulting or judging; for the ancients used consulere in the latter sense, and it still survives in the phrase rogat boni consulas, that is bonum iudices, “judge fit.”
6.32. illa minora, in quibus maxime studiosi eius rei fatigantur, qui verba paulum declinata varie et multipliciter ad veritatem reducunt aut correptis aut porrectis, aut adiectis aut detractis, aut permutatis litteris syllabisve. pravis ingeniis ad foedissima usque ludibria labuntur. enim a consulendo vel a iudicando; nam et hoc consulere veteres vocaverunt, unde adhuc remanet illud rogat boni consulas, id est bonum iudices.
6.33. Again senatus may well be derived from old age (for the senators are called “the fathers” ): I concur in the derivations assigned to rex rector to say nothing of many other words where there can be no doubt, and do not refuse to accept those suggested for tegula, regula and the like: let classis be from calare (call out, summon), lepus be a contraction of levipes and vulpes of volipes.
6.33. nomen dederit aetas (nam iidem Patres sunt), et rex rector et alia plurima indubitata; nec abnuerim tegulae regulaeque et similium his rationem. iam sit et classis a calando et lepus levipes et vulpes volipes:
6.34. But are we also to admit the derivation of certain words from their opposites, and accept lucus a non lucendo, since a grove is dark with shade, ludus in the sense of school as being so called because it is quite the reverse of “play” and Dis, Ditis from diues, because Pluto is far from being rich? Are we to assent to the view that homo is derived from humus, because man sprang from the earth, as though all other living things had not the same origin or as if primitive man gave the earth a name before giving one to himself? Or again can verbum be derived from aer verheratus, “beaten air”?
6.34. etiamne a contrariis aliqua sinemus trahi, ut lucus, quia umbra opacus parum luceat, et ludus, quia sit longissime a lusu, et Ditis, quia minime dives? etiamne hominem appellari, quia sit humo natus (quasi vero non omnibus animalibus eadem origo, aut illi primi mortales ante nomen imposuerint terrae quam sibi), et verba ab aere verberato?
6.35. Let us go a little further and we shall find that stella is believed to be still luminis “a drop of light,” a derivation whose author is so famous in literature that it would be unkind to mention his name in connexion with a point where he comes in for censure.
6.35. Pergamus: sic perveniemus eo usque, ut stella luminis stilla credatur, cuius etymologiae auctorem clarum sane in litteris nominari in ea parte, qua a me reprehenditur, inhumanum est.
6.36. But those who collected such derivations in book form, put their names on the title page; and Gavius thought himself a perfect genius when he identified caelibes, “bachelors,” with caelites, “gods,” on the ground that they are free from a heavy load of care, and supported this opinion by a Greek analogy: for he asserted that ἠΐθεοι “young men,” had a precisely similar origin. Modestus is not his inferior in inventive power: for he asserts that caelibes, that is to say unmarried men, are so called because Saturn cut off the genital organs of Caelus. Aelius asserts that pituita, “phlegm,” is so called quia petat uitam, because it attacks life.
6.36. vero talia libris complexi sunt, nomina sua ipsi inscripserunt; ingenioseque visus est Gavius caelibes dicere veluti caelites, quod onere gravissimo vacent, idque Graeco argumento iuvit, ἠϊθέους enim eadem de causa dici affirmat. ei cedit Modestus inventione, nam, quia Saturnus genitalia absciderit, hoc nomine appellatos, qui uxore careant, ait; Aelius pituitam, quia petat vitam.
6.37. But we may pardon anyone after the example set by Varro. For he tried to persuade Cicero, to whom he dedicated his work, that a field was called eager because something is done in it ( agitur ), and jackdaws graculos because they fly in flocks (gregatim ), in spite of the obvious fact that the first word is derived from the Greek, the latter from the cry of the bird in question.
6.37. cui non post Varronem sit venia, qui agrum, quia in eo agatur aliquid, et graculos, quia gregatim volent, dictos Ciceroni persuadere voluit (ad eum enim scribit), cum alterum ex Graeco sit manifestum duci, alterum ex vocibus avium?
6.38. But Varro had such a passion for derivations that he derived the name merula “a blackbird” from mera uolans on the ground that it flies alone! Some scholars do not hesitate to have recourse to etymology for the origin of every word, deriving names such as Rufus or Longus from the appearance of their possessor, verbs such as strepere or murmurare from the sounds which they represent, and even extending this practice to certain derivatives, making uelox for instance find its origin in uelocitas, as well as to compounds and the like: now although such words doubtless have an origin, no special science is required to detect it, since it is only doubtful cases that demand the intervention of the etymologist.
6.38. hoc tanti fuit vertere, ut merula, quia sola volat, quasi mera volans nominaretur. non dubitaverunt etymologine subiicere omnem nominis causam: ut ex habitu, quemadmodum dixi, Longos et Rufos, ex sono strepere, murmurare; etiam derivata, ut a uelocitate dicitur velox, et composita pluraque his similia, quae sine dubio aliunde originem ducunt, sed arte non egent, cuius in hoc opere non est usus nisi in dubiis.
6.39. Archaic words not only enjoy the patronage of distinguished authors, but also give style a certain majesty and charm. For they have the authority of age behind them, and for the very reason that they have fallen into desuetude, produce an attractive effect not unlike that of novelty.
6.39. a vetustate repetita non solum magnos assertores habent sed etiam adferunt orationi maiestatem aliquam non sine delectatione; nam et auctoritatem antiquitatis habent et, quia intermissa sunt, gratiam novitati similem parant.
6.40. But such words must be used sparingly and must not thrust themselves upon our notice, since there is nothing more tiresome than affectation, nor above all must they be drawn from remote and forgotten ages: I refer to words such as topper, “quite,” antegerio, “exceedingly,” exanclare, “to exhaust,” prosapia, “a race” and the language of the Salian Hymns now scarcely understood by its own priests.
6.40. opus est modo, ut neque crebra sint haec neque manifesta, quia nihil est odiosius adfectatione, nec utique ab ultimis et iam oblitteratis repetita temporibus, qualia sunt topper et antegerio et exanclare et prosapia et Saliorum carmina vix sacerdotibus suis satis intellecta.
6.41. Religion, it is true, forbids us to alter the words of these hymns and we must treat them as sacred things. But what a faulty thing is speech, whose prime virtue is clearness, if it requires an interpreter to make its meaning plain! Consequently in the case of old words the best will be those that are newest, just as in the case of new words the best will be the oldest.
6.41. illa mutari vetat religio et consecratis utendum est; oratio vero, cuius summa virtus est perspicuitas, quam sit vitiosa, si egeat interprete?, ut novorum optima erunt maxime vetera, ita veterum maxime nova.
6.42. The same arguments apply to authority. For although the use of words transmitted to us by the best authors may seem to preclude the possibility of error, it is important to notice not merely what they said, but what words they succeeded in sanctioning. For no one to-day would introduce words such as tuburchinabunidus, “voracious,” or lurchinabundus, “guzzling,” although they have the authority of Cato; nor make lodices, “blankets,” masculine, though Pollio preferred that gender; nor say gladiola, “small swords,” though Messala used this plural, nor parricidatus for parricide, a form which can scarcely be tolerated even in Caelius, nor will Calvus persuade me to speak of collos, “necks.” Indeed, were these authors alive to-day, they would never use such words. Usage remains to be discussed.
6.42. circa auctoritatem ratio. etiamsi potest videri nihil peccare, qui utitur iis verbis, quae summi auctores tradiderunt, multum tamen refert non solum, quid dixerint, sed etiam quid persuaserint. enim tuburchinabundum et lurchinabundum iam in nobis quisquam ferat, licet Cato sit auctor, nec hos lodices, quanquam id Pollioni placet, nec gladiola, atqui Messala dixit, nec parricidatum, quod in Caelio vix tolerabile videtur, nec collos mihi Calvus persuaserit; quae nec ipsi iam dicerent.
6.43. For it would be almost laughable to prefer the language of the past to that of the present day, and what is ancient speech but ancient usage of speaking? But even here the critical faculty is necessary, and we must make up our minds what we mean by usage.
6.43. igitur consuetudo; nam fuerit paene ridiculum malle sermonem, quo locuti sint homines, quam quo loquantur. sane quid est aliud vetus sermo quam vetus loquendi consuetudo? huic ipsi necessarium est iudicium, constituendumque in primis id ipsum quid sit, quod consuetudinem vocemus.
6.44. If it be defined merely as the practice of the majority, we shall have a very dangerous rule affecting not merely style but life as well, a far more serious matter. For where is so much good to be found that what is right should please the majority? The practices of depilation, of dressing the hair in tiers, or of drinking to excess at the baths, although they may have thrust their way into society, cannot claim the support of usage, since there is something to blame in all of them (although we have usage on our side when we bathe or have our hair cut or take our meals together). So too in speech we must not accept as a rule of language words and phrases that have become a vicious habit with a number of persons.
6.44. si ex eo, quod plures faciunt, nomen accipiat, periculosissimum dabit praeceptum, non orationi modo sed (quod maius est) vitae. enim tantum boni, ut pluribus quae recta sunt placeant? ut velli et comam in gradus frangere et in balneis perpotare, quamlibet haec invaserint civitatem, non erit consuetudo, quia nihil horum caret reprehensione; at lavamur et tondemur et convivimus ex consuetudine: sic in loquendo, non si quid vitiose multis insederit, pro regula sermonis accipiendum erit.
6.45. To say nothing of the language of the uneducated, we are all of us well aware that whole theatres and the entire crowd of spectators will often commit barbarisms in the cries which they utter as one man. I will therefore define usage in speech as the agreed practice of educated men, just as where our way of life is concerned I should define it as the agreed practice of all good men.
6.45. , ut transeam, quemadmodum vulgo imperiti loquantur, tota saepe theatra et omnem circi turbam exclamasse barbare scimus. consuetudinem sermonis vocabo consensum eruditorum, sicut vivendi consensum bonorum.
7.1. Having stated the rules which we must follow in speaking, I will now proceed to lay down the rules which must be observed when we write. Such rules are called orthography by the Greeks; let us style it the science of writing correctly. This science does not consist merely in the knowledge of the letters composing each syllable (such a study is beneath the dignity of a teacher of grammar), but, in my opinion, develops all its subtlety in connexion with doubtful points.
7.1. , quoniam diximus, quae sit loquendi regula, dicendum, quae scribentibus custodienda, quod Graeci ὀρθογραφίαν vocant; hoc nos recte scribendi scientiam nominemus. ars non in hoc posita est, ut noverimus, quibus quaeque syllaba litteris constet (nam id quidem infra grammatici officium est), sed totam, ut mea fert opinio, subtilitatem in dubiis habet.
7.2. For instance, while it is absurd to place a circumflex over all long syllables since the quantity of most syllables is obvious from the very nature of the word which is written, it is all the same occasionally necessary, since the same letter involves a different meaning according as it is long or short. For example we determine whether mains is to mean an “apple tree” or a “bad man” by the use of the circumflex; palus means a “stake,” if the first syllable is long, a “marsh,” if it be short; again when the same letter is short in the nominative and long in the ablative, we generally require the circumflex to make it clear which quantity to understand.
7.2. longis syllabis omnibus apponere apicem ineptissimum est, quia plurimae natura ipsa verbi quod scribitur patent, sed interim necessarium, cum eadem littera alium atque alium intellectum, prout correpta vel producta est, facit; ut malus arborem significat an hominem non bonum apice distinguitur, palus aliud priore syllaba longa aliud sequenti significat, et cum eadem littera nominativo casu brevis, ablativo longa est, utrum sequamur, plerumque hac nota monendi sumus.
7.4. Similarly it has been held that we should observe distinctions such as the following: if the preposition ex is compounded with specto, there will be an s in the second syllable, while there will be no s if it is compounded with pecto.
7.4. putaverunt illa quoque servanda discrimina, ut ex praepositionem, si verbum sequeretur specto, adiecta secundae syllabae s littera, si pecto, remota scriberemus.
7.5. Again the following distinction has frequently been observed: ad is spelt with a d when it is a preposition, but with a t when it is a conjunction, while cum is spelt quum when it denotes time, but cum when it denotes accompaniment.
7.5. quoque servata est a multis differentia, ut ad, cum esset praepositio, d litteram, cum autem coniunctio, t acciperet, itemque cum, si tempus significaret, per qu, si comitem, per c ac duas sequentes scriberetur.
7.6. Still more pedantic are the practices of making the fourth letter of quidquid a c to avoid the appearance of repeating a question, and of writing quotidie instead of colidie to show that it stands for quot diebus. But such practices have disappeared into the limbo of absurdities.
7.6. his alia, ut quidquid c quartam haberet, ne interrogare his videremur; et quotidie non cotidie, ut sit quot diebus. haec iam etiam inter ipsas ineptias evanuerunt.
7.7. It is often debated whether in our spelling of prepositions we should be guided by their sound when compounded, or separate. For instance when I say optinuit, logic demands that the second letter should be a b, while to the ear the sound is rather that of p: or again take the case of immunis: the letter n, which is required by strict adherence to fact, is forced by the sound of the m. which follows to change into another m.
7.7. solet, in scribendo praepositiones sonum quem iunctae efficiunt, an quem separatae, observare conveniat: ut, cum dico optinuit (secundam enim b litteram ratio poscit, aures magis audiunt p ) et immunis, illud enim, quod veritas exigit, sequentis syllabae sono victum m gemina commutatur.
7.9. We must also note when analysing compound words, whether the middle consonant adheres to the preceding syllable or to that which follows. For example since the latter part of haruspex is from spectare, the s must be assigned to the third syllable. In abstemius on the other hand it will go with the first syllable since the word is derived from abstinentia temeti, “abstention from wine.”
7.9. et in dividendis verbis observatio, mediam litteram consonantem priori an sequenti syllabae adiungas: haruspex enim, quia pars eius posterior a spectando est, s litteram tertiae dabit; abstemius, quia ex abstinentia temeti composita vox est, primae relinquet.
7.10. As for k my view is that it should not be used at all except in such words as may be indicated by the letter standing alone as an abbreviation. I mention the fact because some hold that k should be used whenever the next letter is an a, despite the existence of the letter c which maintains its force in conjunction with all the vowels. Orthography, however, is also the servant of usage and therefore undergoes frequent change.
7.10. k quidem in nullis verbis utendum puto, nisi quae significant, etiam ut sola ponatur. eo non omisi, quod quidam eam, quotiens a sequatur, necessariam credunt, cum sit c littera, quae ad omnes vocales vim suam perferat.
7.11. I make no mention of the earliest times when our alphabet contained fewer letters and their shapes differed from those which we now use, while their values also were different. For instance in Greek the letter o was sometimes long and short, as it is with us, and again was sometimes used to express the syllable which is identical with its name.
7.11. orthographia quoque consuetudini servit, ideoque saepe mutata est. illa vetustissima transeo tempora, quibus et pauciores litterae nec similes his nostris earum formae fuerunt et vis quoque diversa, sicut apud Graecos o litterae, quae interim longa ac brevis ut apud nos, interim pro syllaba quam nomine suo exprimit posita est;
7.12. And in Latin ancient writers ended a number of words with d, as may be seen on the column adorned with the beaks of ships, which was set up in the forum in honour of Duilius. Sometimes again they gave words a final g, as we may still see in the shrine of the Sun, close to the temple of Quirinus, where we find the word uesperug, which we write uesperugo (evening star).
7.12. ut Latinis veteribus d plurimis in verbis adiectam ultimam, quod manifestum est etiam ex columna rostrata, quae est Duilio in foro posita; interim g quoque, ut in pulvinari Solis, qui colitur iuxta aedem Quirini, vesperug, quod vesperuginem accipimus.
7.13. I have already spoken of the interchange of letters and need not repeat my remarks here: perhaps their pronunciation corresponded with their spelling.
7.13. mutatione etiam litterarum, de qua supra dixi, nihil repetere hic necesse est, fortasse enim sicut scribebant etiam loquebantur.
7.14. For a long time the doubling of semivowels was avoided, while down to the time of Accius and beyond, long syllables were indicated by repetition of the vowel.
7.14. geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi moris, atque e contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis, ut dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.
7.15. The practice of joining e and i as in the Greek diphthong ει lasted longer: it served to distinguish cases and numbers, for which we may compare the instructions of Lucilius:The boys are come: why then, their names must endWith e and i to make them more than one; and later—If to a thief and liar ( mendaci furique ) you would give,In e and i your thief must terminate.But this addition of e is quite superfluous, since t can be long no less than short:
7.15. duravit, ut e et i iungendis eadem ratione qua Graeci ει uterentur; ea casibus numerisque discreta est, ut Lucilius praecipit: puerei venere, e postremum. facito atque i, Ut pueri plures fiant; ac deinceps idem: furique addes e, cum dare furi iusseris.
7.16. it is also at times inconvenient. For in those words which end in i and have e as their last letter but one, we shall on this principle have to write e twice: I refer to words such as aurei or argentei and the like.
7.16. quidem cum supervacuum est, quia i tam longae quam brevis naturam habet, tum incommodum aliquando. in iis, quae proximam ab ultima litteram e habebunt et i longa terminabuntur, illam rationem sequentes utemur e gemina, qualia sunt haec aurei, argentei et his similia.
7.17. Now such a practice will be an actual hindrance to those who are learning to read. This difficulty occurs in Greek as well in connexion with the addition of an iota, which is employed not merely in the termination of the dative, but is sometimes found in the middle of words as in λῄστης, for the reason that the analysis applied by etymology shows the word to be a trisyllable and requires the addition of that letter. The diphthong ae now written with an e, was pronounced in old days as ai;
7.17. iis praecipue, qui ad lectionem instituentur, etiam impedimento erit; sicut in Graecis accidit adiectione i litterae, quam non solum dativis casibus in parte ultima ascribunt sed quibusdam etiam interponunt, ut in ΛΗΙΣΤΗΙ quia etymologia ex divisione in tris syllabas facta desideret eam litteram.
7.18. some wrote ai in all cases, as in Greek, others confined its use to the dative and genitive singular; whence it comes that Vergil, always a passionate lover of antiquity, inserted pictai uestis and aquai in his poems.
7.18. syllabam, cuius secundam nunc e litteram ponimus, varie per a et i efferebant; quidam semper ut Graeci, quidam singulariter tantum, cum in datiuum vel genitivum casum incidissent, unde pictai vestis et aquai Vergilius amantissimus vetustatis carminibus inseruit.
7.19. But in the plural they used e and wrote Syllae, Galbae. Lucilius has given instructions on this point also; his instructions occupy quite a number of verses, for which the incredulous may consult his ninth book.
7.19. iisdem plurali numero e utebantur, hi Syllae, Galbae. in hac quoque parte Lucilii praeceptum, quod quia pluribus explicatur versibus, si quis parum credet, apud ipsum in nono requirat.
7.20. Again in Cicero's days and a little later, it was the almost universal practice to write a double s, whenever that letter occurred between two long vowels or after a long vowel, as for example in caussae, cassus, diuissiones. That he and Vergil both used this spelling is shown by their own autograph manuscripts.
7.20. quod Ciceronis temporibus paulumque infra, fere quotiens s littera media vocalium longarum vel subiecta longis esset, geminabatur, ut caussae, cassus, divissiones? quomodo et ipsum et Vergilium quoque scripsisse manus eorum docent.
7.21. And yet at a slightly earlier date iussi which we write with a double s was spelt with only one. Further optimnus maximus, which older writers spelt with a u, appear for the first time with an i (such at any rate is the tradition) in an inscription of Gaius Caesar.
7.21. paulum superiores etiam illud, quod nos gemina dicimus iussi, una dixerunt. optimus maximus, ut media i litteram, quae veteribus u fuerat, acciperent, Gai primum Caesaris inscriptione traditur factum.
7.22. We now write here, but I still find in manuscripts of the old comic poets phrases such as heri ad me uenit, and the same spelling is found in letters of Augustus written or corrected by his own hand.
7.22. nunc e littera terminamus, at veterum comicorum adhuc libris invenio ad me venit; quod idem in epistolis Augusti, quas sua manu scripsit aut emendavit, deprehenditur.
7.23. Again did not Cato the censor spell dicam and faciam as dicem and faciem and observe the same practice in words of similar termination? This is clear from old manuscripts of his works and is recorded by Messala in his treatise on the letter s. Sibe and quase are found in many books, but I cannot say whether the authors wished them to be spelt thus:
7.23. ? non Cato Censorius dicam et faciam dicem et faciem scripsit, eundemque in ceteris, quae similiter cadunt, modum tenuit, quod et ex veteribus eius libris manifestum est et a Messala in libro de s littera positum?
7.24. I learn from Pedianus that Livy, whose precedent he himself adopted, used this spelling: to-day we make these words end with an i.
7.24. et quase scriptum in multorum libris est, sed an hoc voluerint auctores, nescio; T. Livium ita his usum ex Pediano comperi, qui et ipse eum sequebatur;
7.25. What shall I say of uorlices, uorsus and the like, which Scipio Africanus is said to have been the first to spell with an e?
7.25. haec nos i littera finimus. dicam vortices et vorsus ceteraque ad eundem modum, quae primus Scipio Africanus in e litteram secundam vertisse dicitur?
7.26. My own teachers spelt seruus and ceruus with a uo, in order that the repetition of the vowel might not lead to the coalescence and confusion of the two sounds: to-day however we write these words with a double u on the principle which I have already stated: neither spelling however exactly expresses the pronunciation. It was not without reason that Claudius introduced the Aeolic digamma to represent this sound. It is a distinct improvement that to-day we spell cui as I have written it:
7.26. praeceptores seruum ceruumque u et o litteris scripserunt, quia subiecta sibi vocalis in unum sonum coalescere et confundi nequiret; nunc u gemina scribuntur ea ratione, quam reddidi; neutro sane modo vox, quam sentimus, efficitur. inutiliter Claudius Aeolicam illam ad hos usus litteram adiecerat.
7.27. when I was a boy it used to be spelt quoi, giving it a very full sound, merely to distinguish it from qui. Again, what of words whose spelling is at variance with their pronunciation? For instance C is used as an abbreviation for Gaius, and when inverted stands for a woman, for as we know from the words of the marriage service women used to be called Gaiae, just as men were called Gaii. Gnaeus too in the abbreviation indicating the praenomen is spelt in a manner which does not agree with its pronunciation.
7.27. nunc melius, quod cui tribus, quas praeposui, litteris enotamus; in quo pueris nobis ad pinguem sane sonum qu et oi utebantur, tantum ut ab illo qui distingueretur. ? quae scribuntur aliter quam enuntiantur? et Gaius C littera significatur, quae inversa mulierem declarat; quia tam Gaias esse vocitatas quam Gaios etiam ex nuptialibus sacris apparet.
7.29. We also find columnas and consul spelt without an n, while Subura when indicated by three letters is spelt Suc. I could quote many other examples of this, but I fear that I have already said too much on so trivial a theme.
7.29. Gnaeus eam litteram in praenominis nota accipit, quae sonat; et columnam et consules exempta n littera legimus; et Subura, cum tribus litteris notatur, c tertiam ostendit. sunt generis huius; sed haec quoque vereor ne modum tam parvae quaestionis excesserint.
7.30. On all such subjects the teacher must use his own judgment; for in such matters it should be the supreme authority. For my own part, I think that, within the limits prescribed by usage, words should be spelt as they are pronounced.
7.30. autem suum grammaticus interponat his omnibus; nam hoc valere plurimum debet. (nisi quod consuetudo obtinuerit) sic scribendum quidque iudico, quomodo sonat.
7.31. For the use of letters is to preserve the sound of words and to deliver them to readers as a sacred trust: consequently they ought to represent the pronunciation which we are to use.
7.31. enim est usus litterarum, ut custodiant voces et velut depositum reddant legentibus, itaque id exprimere debent quod dicturi sumus.
7.32. These are the more important points in connexion with writing and speaking correctly. I do not go so far as to deny to the teacher of literature all part in the two remaining departments of speaking and writing with elegance and significance, but I reserve these for a more important portion of this work, as I have still to deal with the duties of the teacher of rhetoric.
7.32. fere sunt emendate loquendi scribendique partes; duas reliquas significanter ornateque dicendi non equidem grammaticis aufero, sed cum mihi officia rhetoris supersint, maiori operi reservo.
7.33. I am however haunted by the thought that some readers will regard what I have said as trivial details which are only likely to prove a hindrance to those who are intent upon a greater task; and I myself do not think that we should go so far as to lose our sleep of nights or quibble like fools over such minutiae; for such studies make mincemeat of the mind. But it is only the superfluities of grammar that do any harm.
7.33. autem illa cogitatio, quosdam fore, qui haec quae diximus parva nimium et impedimenta quoque maius aliquid agentibus putent. ipse ad extremam usque anxietatem et ineptas cavillationes descendendum atque iis ingenia concidi et comminui credo.
7.34. I ask you, is Cicero a less great orator for having given this science his diligent attention or for having, as his letters show, demanded rigid correctness of speech from his son? Or was the vigour of Gaius Caesar's eloquence impaired by the publication of a treatise on Analogy?
7.34. nihil ex grammatice nocuerit, nisi quod supervacuum est. ideo minor est M. Tullius orator, quod idem artis huius diligentissimus fuit et in filio (ut epistolis apparet) recte loquendi asper quoque exactor? aut vim C. Caesaris fregerunt editi de analogia libri?
7.35. Or the polish of Messala dimmed by the fact that he devoted whole books to the discussion not merely of single words, but of single letters? Such studies do no harm to those who but pass through them: it is only the pedantic stickler who suffers.
7.35. aut ideo minus Messala nitidus, quia quosdam totos libellos non verbis modo singulis sed etiam litteris dedit? obstant hae disciplinae per illas euntibus sed circa illas haerentibus.
8.1. Reading remains for consideration. In this connexion there is much that can only be taught in actual practice, as for instance when the boy should take breath, at what point he should introduce a pause into a line, where the sense ends or begins, when the voice should be raised or lowered, what modulation should be given to each phrase, and when he should increase or slacken speed, or speak with greater or less energy.
8.1. lectio, in qua puer ut sciat, ubi suspendere spiritum debeat, quo loco versum distinguere, ubi claudatur sensus, unde incipiat, quando attollenda vel summittenda sit vox, quo quidque flexu, quid lentius, celerius, concitatius, lenius dicendum, demonstrari nisi in opere ipso non potest.
8.2. In this portion of my work I will give but one golden rule: to do all these things, he must understand what he reads. But above all his reading must be manly, combining dignity and charm; it must be different from the reading of prose, for poetry is song and poets claim to be singers. But this fact does not justify degeneration into sing-song or the effeminate modulations now in vogue: there is an excellent saying on this point attributed to Gaius Caesar while he was still a boy: “If you are singing, you sing badly: if you are reading, you sing.”
8.2. est igitur, quod in hac parte praecipiam: ut omnia ista facere possit, intelligat. autem in primis lectio virilis et cum suavitate quadam gravis et non quidem prosae similis, quia et carmen est et se poetae canere testantur; non tamen in canticum dissoluta nec plasmate (ut nunc a plerisque fit) effeminata; de quo genere optime C. Caesarem praetextatum adhuc accepimus dixisse: cantas, male cantas; si legis, cantas.
8.3. Again I do not, like some teachers, wish character as revealed by speeches to be indicated as it is by the comic actor, though I think that there should be some modulation of the voice to distinguish such passages from those where the poet is speaking in person.
8.3. prosopopoeias, ut quibusdam placet, ad comicum morem pronuntiari velim; esse tamen flexum quendam, quo distinguantur ab iis, in quibus poeta persona sua utetur.
8.4. There are other points where there is much need of instruction: above all, unformed minds which are liable to be all the more deeply impressed by what they learn in their days of childish ignorance, must learn not merely what is eloquent; it is even more important that they should study what is morally excellent.
8.4. admonitione magna egent, in primis, ut tenerae mentes tracturaeque altius, quidquid rudibus et omnium ignaris insederit, non modo quae diserta sed vel magis quae honesta sunt, discant.
8.5. It is therefore an admirable practice which now prevails, to begin by reading Homer and Vergil, although the intelligence needs to be further developed for the full appreciation of their merits: but there is plenty of time for that since the boy will read them more than once. In the meantime let his mind be lifted by the sublimity of heroic verse, inspired by the greatness of its theme and imbued with the loftiest sentiments.
8.5. optime institutum est, ut ab Homero atque Vergilio lectio inciperet, quanquam ad intelligendas eorum virtutes firmiore iudicio opus est; sed huic rei superest tempus, neque enim semel legentur. et sublimitate heroi carminis animus adsurgat et ex magnitudine rerum spiritum ducat et optimis imbuatur.
8.6. The reading of tragedy also is useful, and lyric poets will provide nourishment for the mind, provided not merely the authors be carefully selected, but also the passages from their works which are to be read. For the Greek lyric poets are often licentious and even in Horace there are passages which I should be unwilling to explain to a class. Elegiacs, however, more especially erotic elegy, and hendecasyllables, which are merely sections of Sotadean verse (concerning which latter I need give no admonitions), should be entirely banished, if possible; if not absolutely banished, they should be reserved for pupils of a less impressionable age. As to comedy, whose contribution to eloquence may be of no small importance, since it is concerned with every kind of character and emotion, I will shortly point out in its due places what use can in my opinion be made of it in the education of boys.
8.6. tragoediae, alunt et lyrici; si tamen in his non auctores modo sed etiam partes operis elegeris, nam et Graeci licenter multa et Horatium nolim in quibusdam interpretari. vero, utique quae amat, et hendecasyllabi, qui sunt commata Sotadeorum (nam de Sotadeis ne praecipiendum quidem est) amoveantur, si fieri potest, si minus, certe ad firmius aetatis robur reserventur.
8.7. As soon as we have no fear of contaminating their morals, it should take its place among the subjects which it is specially desirable to read. I speak of Menander, though I would not exclude others. For Latin authors will also be of some service.
8.7. , quae plurimum conferre ad eloquentiam potest, cum per omnes et personas et adfectus eat, quem usum in pueris putem, paulo post suo loco dicam; nam cum mores in tuto fuerint, inter praecipua legenda erit.
8.8. But the subjects selected for lectures to boys should be those which will enlarge the mind and provide the greatest nourishment to the intellect. Life is quite long enough for the subsequent study of those other subjects which are concerned with matters of interest solely to learned men. But even the old Latin poets may be of great value, in spite of the fact that their strength lies in their natural talent rather than in their art: above all they will contribute richness of vocabulary: for the vocabulary of the tragedians is full of dignity, while in that of the comedians there is a certain elegance and Attic grace.
8.8. Menandro loquor, nec tamen excluserim alios. Latini quoque auctores adferent utilitatis aliquid. pueris, quae maxime ingenium alant atque animum augeant, praelegenda; ceteris, quae ad eruditionem modo pertinent, longa aetas spatium dabit. autem veteres etiam Latini conferunt, (quanquam plerique plus ingenio quam arte valuerunt) in primis copiam verborum, quorum in tragoediis gravitas, in comoediis elegantia et quidam velut ἀττικισμός inveniri potest.
8.9. They are, too, more careful about dramatic structure than the majority of moderns, who regard epigram as the sole merit of every kind of literary work. For purity at any rate and manliness, if I may say so, we must certainly go to these writers, since to-day even our style of speaking is infected with all the faults of modern decadence.
8.9. quoque in iis diligentior quam in plerisque novorum erit, qui omnium operum solam virtutem sententias putaverunt. certe et, ut sic dicam, virilitas ab iis petenda est, quando nos in omnia deliciarum vitia dicendi quoque ratione defluximus.
8.10. Finally we may derive confidence from the practice of the greatest orators of drawing upon the early poets to support their arguments or adorn their eloquence.
8.10. credamus summis oratoribus, qui veterum poemata vel ad fidem causarum vel ad ornamentum eloquentiae adsumunt.
8.11. For we find, more especially in the pages of Cicero, but frequently in Asinius and other orators of that period, quotations from Ennius, Accius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, Terence, Caecilius and others, inserted not merely to show the speaker's learning, but to please his hearers as well, since the charms of poetry provide a pleasant relief from the severity of forensic eloquence.
8.11. praecipue quidem apud Ciceronem frequenter tamen apud Asinium etiam et ceteros, qui sunt proximi, videmus Enni, Acci, Pacuvi, Lucili, Terenti, Caecili et aliorum inseri versus summa non eruditionis modo gratia sed etiam iucunditatis, cum poeticis voluptatibus aures a forensi asperitate respirent.
8.12. Such quotations have the additional advantage of helping the speaker's case, for the orator makes use of the sentiments expressed by the poet as evidence in support of his own statements. But while my earlier remarks have special application to the education of boys, those which I have just made apply rather to persons of riper years; for the love of letters and the value of reading are not confined to one's schooldays, but end only with life.
8.12. accedit non mediocris utilitas, cum sententiis eorum velut quibusdam testimoniis quae proposuere confirment. priora illa ad pueros magis, haec sequentia ad robustiores pertinebunt, cum grammatices amor et usus lectionis non scholarum temporibus, sed vitae spatio terminentur.
8.13. In lecturing the teacher of literature must give attention to minor points as well: he will ask his class after analysing a verse to give him the parts of speech and the peculiar features of the feet which it contains: these latter should be so familiar in poetry as to make their presence desired even in the prose of oratory. He will point out what words are barbarous, what improperly used, and what are contrary to the laws of language.
8.13. praelegendo grammaticus et illa quidem minora praestare debebit, ut partes orationis reddi sibi soluto versu desideret et pedum proprietates, quae adeo debent esse notae in carminibus, ut etiam in oratoria compositione desiderentur., quae barbara, quae impropria, quae contra leges loquendi sint posita;
8.14. He will not do this by way of censuring the poets for such peculiarities, for poets are usually the servants of their metres and are allowed such licence that faults are given other names when they occur in poetry: for we style them metaplasms, schematisms and schemata, as I have said, and make a virtue of necessity. Their aim will rather be to familiarise the pupil with the artifices of style and to stimulate his memory.
8.14. non ut ex iis utique improbentur poetae (quibus, quia plerumque servire metro coguntur, adeo ignoscitur, ut vitia ipsa allis in carmine appellationibus nominentur; metaplasmos enim et schematismos et schemata, ut dixi, vocamus, et laudem virtutis necessitati damus), sed ut commoneat artificialium et memoriam agitet.
8.15. Further in the elementary stages of such instruction it will not be unprofitable to show the different meanings which may be given to each word. With regard to glossemala, that is to say words not in common use, the teacher must exercise no ordinary diligence, while still greater care is required in teaching all the tropes which are employed for the adornment more especially of poetry, but of oratory as well, and in making his class acquainted with the two sorts of schemata or figures known as figures of speech and figures of thought.
8.15. quoque inter prima rudimenta non inutile demonstrare, quot quaeque verba modis intelligenda sint. glossemata etiam, id est voces minus usitatas, non ultima eius professionis diligentia est.
8.16. I shall however postpone discussion of tropes and figures till I come to deal with the various ornaments of style. Above all he will impress upon their minds the value of proper arrangement, and of graceful treatment of the matter in hand: he will show what is appropriate to the various characters, what is praiseworthy in the thoughts or words, where copious diction is to be commended and where restraint.
8.16. iam maiore cura doceat tropos omnes, quibus praecipue non poema modo sed etiam oratio ornatur; schemata utraque, id est figuras, quaeque λέξεως quaeque διανοίας vocantur, quorum ego sicut troporum tractatum in eum locum differo, quo mihi de ornatu orationis dicendum erit. vero illa infigat animis, quae in oeconomia virtus, quae in decore rerum, quid personae cuique convenerit, quid in sensibus laudandum, quid in verbis, ubi copia probabilis, ubi modus.
8.18. In addition to this he will explain the various stories that occur: this must be done with care, but should not be encumbered with superfluous detail. For it is sufficient to set forth the version which is generally received or at any rate rests upon good authority. But to ferret out everything that has ever been said on the subject even by the most worthless of writers is a sign of tiresome pedantry or empty ostentation, and results in delaying and swamping the mind when it would be better employed on other themes.
8.18. accedet enarratio historiarum, diligens quidem illa non tamen usque ad supervacuum laborem occupata. receptas aut certe claris auctoribus memoratas exposuisse satis est. quidem, quid quis unquam vel contemptissimorum hominum dixerit, aut nimiae miseriae aut inanis iactantiae est et detinet atque obruit ingenia melius aliis uacatura.
8.19. The man who pores over every page even though it be wholly unworthy of reading, is capable of devoting his attention to the investigation of old wives' tales. And yet the commentaries of teachers of literature are full of such encumbrances to learning and strangely unfamiliar to their own authors.
8.19. qui omnes etiam indignas lectione scidas excutit, anilibus quoque fabulis accommodare operam potest. pleni sunt huiusmodi impedimentis grammaticorum commentarii, vix ipsis qui composuerunt satis noti.
8.20. It is, for instance, recorded that Didymus, who was unsurpassed for the number of books which he wrote, on one occasion objected to some story as being absurd, whereupon one of his own books was produced which contained the story in question.
8.20. Didymo, quo nemo plura scripsit, accidisse compertum est, ut, cum historiae cuidam tanquam vanae repugnaret, ipsius proferretur liber, qui eam continebat.
8.21. Such abuses occur chiefly in connexion with fabulous stories and are sometimes carried to ludicrous or even scandalous extremes: for in such cases the more unscrupulous commentator has such full scope for invention, that he can tell lies to his heart's content about whole books and authors without fear of detection: for what never existed can obviously never be found, whereas if the subject is familiar the careful investigator will often detect the fraud. Consequently I shall count it a merit in a teacher of literature that there should be some things which he does not know.
8.21. evenit praecipue in fabulosis usque ad deridicula quaedam, quaedam etiam pudenda; unde improbissimo cuique pleraque fingendi licentia est, adeo ut de libris totis et auctoribus, ut succurrit, mentiantur tuto, quia inveniri qui nunquam fuere non possunt: nam in notioribus frequentissime deprehenduntur a curiosis. quo mihi inter virtutes grammatici habebitur aliqua nescire.
9.1. IX. I have now finished with two of the departments, with which teachers of literature profess to deal, namely the art of speaking correctly and the interpretation of authors; the former they call nethodicē, the latter historiē We must however add to their activities instruction in certain rudiments of oratory for the benefit of those who are not yet ripe for the schools of rhetoric.
9.1. finitae quidem sunt partes duae, quas haec professio pollicetur, id est ratio loquendi et enarratio auctorum, quarum illam methodicen hanc historicen vocant. tamen eorum curae quaedam dicendi primordia, quibus aetates nondum rhetorem capientes instituant.
9.2. Their pupils should learn to paraphrase Aesop's fables, the natural successors of the fairy stories of the nursery, in simple and restrained language and subsequently to set down this paraphrase in writing with the same simplicity of style: they should begin by analysing each verse, then give its meaning in different language, and finally proceed to a freer paraphrase in which they will be permitted now to abridge and now to embellish the original, so far as this may be done without losing the poet's meaning.
9.2. Aesopi fabellas, quae fabulis nutricularum proxime succedunt, narrare sermone puro et nihil se supra modum extollente, deinde eandem gracilitatem stilo exigere condiscant; versus primo solvere, mox mutatis verbis interpretari, tum paraphrasi audacius vertere, qua et breviare quaedam et exornare salvo modo poetae sensu permittitur.
9.3. This is no easy task even for the expert instructor, and the pupil who handles it successfully will be capable of learning everything. He should also be set to write aphorisms, moral essays (chriae ) and delineations of character (ethologiae ), of which the teacher will first give the general scheme, since such themes will be drawn from their reading. In all of these exercises the general idea is the same, but the form differs: aphorisms are general propositions, while ethologiae are concerned with persons .
9.3. opus etiam consummatis professoribus difficile qui commode tractaverit, cuicunque discendo sufficiet. quoque et chriae et ethologiae subiectis dictorum rationibus apud grammaticos scribantur, quia initium ex lectione ducunt; quorum omnium similis est ratio, forma diversa, quia sententia universalis est vox, ethologia personis continetur.
9.4. Of moral essays there are various forms: some are akin to aphorisms and commence with a simple statement “he said” or “he used to say”: others give the answer to a question and begin “on being asked” or “in answer to this he replied,” while a third and not dissimilar type begins, “when someone has said or done something.” Some hold that a moral essay may take some action as its text;
9.4. plura genera traduntur: unum simile sententiae, quod est positum in voce simplici, ille, aut, solebat; alterum, quod est in respondendo, ille, vel, cum hoc ei dictum esset, respondit; tertium huic non dissimile, cum quis dixisset aliquid, vel fecisset.
9.5. take for example the statement “Crates on seeing an ill-educated boy, beat his paedagogus,” or a very similar example which they do not venture actually to propose as a theme for a moral essay, but content themselves with saying that it is of the nature of such a theme, namely “Milo, having accustomed himself to carrying a calf every day, ended by carrying it when grown to a bull.” All these instances are couched in the same grammatical form and deeds no less than sayings may be presented for treatment.
9.5. in ipsorum factis esse chriam putant, ut, cum indoctum puerum vidisset, paedagogum eius percussit; et aliud paene par ei, quod tamen eodem nomine appellare non audent sed dicunt χρειῶδες, ut Milo, quem vitulum adsueuerat ferre, taurum ferebat. his omnibus et declinatio per eosdem ducitur casus, et tam factorum quam dictorum ratio est.
9.6. Short stories from the poets should in my opinion be handled not with a view to style but as a means of increasing knowledge. Other more serious and ambitious tasks have been also imposed on teachers of literature by the fact that Latin rhetoricians will have nothing to do with them: Greek rhetoricians have a better comprehension of the extent and nature of the tasks placed on their shoulders.
9.6. a poetis celebratas notitiae causa non eloquentiae tractandas puto. maioris operis ac spiritus Latini rhetores relinquendo necessaria grammaticis fecerunt; Graeci magis operum suorum et onera et modum norunt.
10.1. I have made my remarks on this stage of education as brief as possible, making no attempt to say everything, (for the theme is infinite), but confining myself to the most necessary points. I will now proceed briefly to discuss the remaining arts in which I think boys ought to be instructed before being handed over to the teacher of rhetoric: for it is by such studies that the course of education described by the Greeks as ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία or general education will be brought to its full completion.
10.1. de Grammatice, quam brevissime potui, non ut omnia dicerem sectatus, quod infinitum erat, sed ut maxime necessaria; nunc de ceteris artibus, quibus instituendos, priusquam rhetori tradantur, pueros existimo, strictim subiungam, ut efficiatur orbis ille doctrinae, quem Graeci ἐγκύκλιον παιδείαν vocant.
10.2. For there are other subjects of education which must be studied simultaneously with literature. These being independent studies are capable of completion without a knowledge of oratory, while on the other hand they cannot by themselves produce an orator. The question has consequently been raised as to whether they are necessary for this purpose.
10.2. iisdem fere annis aliarum quoque disciplinarum studia ingredienda sunt, quae, quia et ipsae artes sunt et esse perfectae sine orandi scientia possunt nec rursus ad efficiendum oratorem satis valent solae, an sint huic operi necessariae quaeritur.
10.3. What, say some, has the knowledge of the way to describe an equilateral triangle on a given straight line got to do with pleading in the law-courts or speaking in the senate? Will an acquaintance with the names and intervals of the notes of the lyre help an orator to defend a criminal or direct the policy of his country?
10.3. quid, inquiunt, ad agendam causam dicendamve sententiam pertinet, scire, quemadmodum data linea constitui triangula aequis lateribus possint? quo melius vel defendet reum vel reget consilia, qui citharae sonos nominibus et spatiis distinxerit?
10.4. They will perhaps produce a long list of orators who are most effective in the courts but have never sat under a geometrician and whose understanding of music is confined to the pleasure which their ears, like those of other men, derive from it. To such critics I reply, and Cicero frequently makes the same remark in his Orator, that I am not describing any orator who actually exists or has existed, but have in my mind's eye an ideal orator, perfect down to the smallest detail.
10.4. etiam fortasse multos quamlibet utiles foro, qui nec geometren audierint nec musicos nisi hac communi voluptate aurium intelligant. ego primum hoc respondeo, quod M. Cicero scripto ad Brutum libro frequentius testatur, non eum a nobis institui oratorem, qui sit aut fuerit, sed imaginem quandam concepisse nos animo perfecti illius et nulla parte cessantis.
10.5. For when the philosophers describe the ideal sage who is to be consummate in all knowledge and a very god incarnate, as they say, they would have him receive instruction not merely in the knowledge of things human and divine, but would also lead him through a course of subjects, which in themselves are comparatively trivial, as for instance the elaborate subtleties of formal logic: not that acquaintance with the so called “horn” or “crocodile” problems can make a man wise, but because it is important that he should never trip even in the smallest trifles.
10.5. et sapientem formantes eum, qui sit futurus consummatus undique et, ut dicunt, mortalis quidam deus, non modo cognitione caelestium vel mortalium putant instruendum, sed per quaedam parva sane, si ipsa demum aestimes, ducunt sicut exquisitas interim ambiguitates; non quia ceratinae aut crocodilinae possint facere sapientem, sed quia illum ne in minimis quidem oporteat falli.
10.6. So too the teacher of geometry, music or other subjects which I would class with these, will not be able to create the perfect orator (who like the philosopher ought to be a wise man), but none the less these arts will assist in his perfection. I may draw a parallel from the use of antidotes and other remedies applied to the eyes or to wounds. We know that these are composed of ingredients which produce many and sometimes contrary effects, but mixed together they make a single compound resembling no one of its component parts, but deriving its peculiar properties from all:
10.6. oratorem, qui delet esse sapiens, non geometres faciet aut musicus quaeque his alia subiungam, sed hae quoque artes, ut sit consummatus, iuvabunt. forte antidotus quidem atque alia, quae oculis aut vulneribus medentur, ex multis atque interim contrariis quoque inter se effectibus componi videmus, quorum ex diversis fit una illa mixtura, quae nulli earum similis est, ex quibus constat, sed proprias vires ex omnibus sumit;