---
title: "On Architecture · De architectura"
author: "Vitruvius"
translator: "Morris Hicky Morgan"
languages: [la, en]
shelf: "Classical Latin"
section: 12 of 22
url: https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/12/
cite: "Vitruvius, tr. Morris Hicky Morgan, On Architecture · De architectura, section 12. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/12/"
---

# On Architecture · De architectura

*Vitruvius, tr. Morris Hicky Morgan*

The only architectural treatise to survive from antiquity: firmness, usefulness and beauty, temples and the proportions of the human body, water, sundials and machines.

> Latin: ed. Fritz Krohn, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-latinLit, phi1056.phi001, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: Morris Hicky Morgan, from the Perseus Digital Library (phi1056.phi001.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 12. Book VI · preface, chapters 1–3

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/12/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/12/#p-N

[¶0] pr.1. 1. IT is related of the Socratic philosopher Aristippus that, being shipwrecked and cast ashore on the coast of the Rhodians, he observed geometrical figures drawn thereon, and cried out to his companions: “Let us be of good cheer, for I seethe traces of man.” With that he made for the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. There he fell to discussing philosophical subjects, and presents were bestowed upon him, so that he could not only fit himself out, but could also provide those who accompanied him with clothing and all other necessaries of life. When his companions wished to return to their country, and asked him what message he wished them to carry home, he bade them say this: that children ought to be provided with property and resources of a kind that could swim with them even out of a shipwreck.

> Latin: pr.1. Aristippus philosophus Socraticus, naufragio cum eiectus ad Rhodiensium litus animadvertisset geometrica schemata descripta, exclamavisse ad comites ita dicitur: 'bene speremus! hominum enim vestigia video.' statimque in oppidum Rhodum contendit et recta gymnasium devenit, ibique de philosophia disputans muneribus est donatus, ut non tantum se ornaret, sed etiam eis, qui una fuerunt, et vestitum et cetera, quae opus essent ad victum, praestaret. cum autem eius comites in patriam reverti voluissent interrogarentque eum, quidnam vellet domum renuntiari, tunc ita mandavit dicere: eiusmodi possessiones et viatica liberis oportere parari, quae etiam e naufragio una possent enatare.

[¶1] pr.2. 2. These are indeed the true supports of life, and neither Fortune's adverse gale, nor political revolution, nor ravages of war can do them any harm. Developing the same idea, Theophrastus, urging men to acquire learning rather than to put their trust in money, states the case thus: “The man of learning is the only person in the world who is neither a stranger when in a foreign land, nor friendless when he has lost his intimates and relatives; on the contrary, he is a citizen of every country, and can fearlessly look down upon the troublesome accidents of fortune. But he who thinks himself entrenched in defences not of learning but of luck, moves in slippery paths, struggling through life unsteadily and insecurely.”

> Latin: pr.2. Namque ea vera praesidia sunt vitae, quibus neque fortunae tempestas iniqua neque publicarum rerum mutatio neque belli vastatio potest nocere. non minus eam sententiam augendo Theophrastus, hortando doctos potius esse quam pecuniae confidentes, ita ponit: doctum ex omnibus solum neque in alienis locis peregrinum neque amissis familiaribus et necessariis inopem amicorum, sed in omni civitate esse civem difficilesque fortunae sine timore posse despicere casus; at qui non doctrinarum sed felicitatis praesidiis putaret se esse vallatum, labidis itineribus vadentem non stabili sed in firma conflictari vita.

[¶2] pr.3. 3. And Epicurus, in much the same way, says that the wise owe little to fortune; all that is greatest and essential is under the direction of the thinking power of the mind and the understanding. Many other philosophers have said the same thing. Likewise the poets who wrote the ancient comedies in Greek have expressed the same sentiments in their verses on the stage: for example, Eucrates, Chionides, Aristophanes, and with them Alexis in particular, who says that the Athenians ought to be praised for the reason that, while the laws of all Greeks require the maintenance of parents by their children, the laws of the Athenians require this only in the case of those who have educated their children in the arts. All the gifts which fortune bestows she can easily take away; but education, when combined with intelligence, never fails, but abides steadily on to the very end of life.

> Latin: pr.3. Epicurus vero non dissimiliter ait: pauca sapientibus fortunam tribuere, quae autem maxima et necessaria sunt, animi mentisque cogitationibus gubernari. haec ita etiam plures philosophi dixerunt. non minus poetae, qui antiquas comoedias graece scripserunt, easdem sententias versibus in scaena pronuntiaverunt, ut Crates, Chionides, Aristophanes, maxime etiam cum his Alexis, qui Athenienses ait oportere ideo laudari, quod omnium Graecorum leges cogunt parentes ⟨ali⟩ a liberis, Atheniensium non omnes nisi eos, qui liberos artibus erudissent. omnia enim munera fortunae cum dantur, ab ea faciliter adimuntur; disciplinae vero coniunctae cum animis nullo tempore deficiunt, sed permanent stabiliter ad summum exitum vitae.

[¶3] pr.4. 4. Hence, I am very much obliged and infinitely grateful to my parents for their approval of this Athenian law, and for having taken care that I should be taught an art, and that of a sort which cannot be brought to perfection without learning and a liberal education in all branches of instruction. Thanks, therefore, to the attention of my parents and the instruction given by my teachers, I obtained a wide range of knowledge, and by the pleasure which I take in literary and artistic subjects, and in the writing of treatises, I have acquired intellectual possessions whose chief fruits are these thoughts: that superfluity is useless, and that not to feel the want of anything is true riches. There may be some people, however, who deem all this of no consequence, and think that the wise are those who have plenty of money. Hence it is that very many, in pursuit of that end, take upon themselves impudent assurance, and attain notoriety and wealth at the same time.

> Latin: pr.4. Itaque ego maximas infinitasque parentibus ago atque habeo gratias, quod Atheniensium legem probantes me arte erudiendum curaverunt, et ea, quae non potest esse probata sine litteratura encyclioque doctrinarum omnium disciplina. cum ergo et parentium cura et praeceptorum doctrinis auctas haberem copias disciplinarum, philologis et philotechinis rebus commentariorumque scripturis me delectans eas possessiones animo paravi, e quibus haec est fructuum summa: nullas plus habendi esse necessitates eamque esse proprietatem, divitiarum maxime nihil desiderare. sed forte nonnulli haec levia iudicantes putant eos esse sapientes, qui pecunia sunt copiosi. itaque plerique ad id propositum contendentes audacia adhibita cum divitiis etiam notitiam sunt consecuti.

[¶4] pr.5. 5. But for my part, Caesar, I have never been eager to make money by my art, but have gone on the principle that slender means and a good reputation are preferable to wealth and disrepute. For this reason, only a little celebrity has followed; but still, my hope is that, with the publication of these books, I shall become known even to posterity. And it is not to be wondered at that I am so generally unknown. Other architects go about and ask for opportunities to practise their profession; but I have been taught by my instructors that it is the proper thing to undertake a charge only after being asked, and not to ask for it; since a gentleman will blush with shame at petitioning for a thing that arouses suspicion. It is in fact those who can grant favours that are courted, not those who receive them. What are we to think must be the suspicions of a man who is asked to allow his private means to be expended in order to please a petitioner? Must he not believe that the thing is to be done for the profit and advantage of that individual?

> Latin: pr.5. Ego autem, Caesar, non ad pecuniam parandam ex arte dedi studium, sed potius tenuitatem cum bona fama quam abundantiam cum infamia sequendam probavi. ideo notities parum est adsecuta. sed tamen his voluminibus editis, ut spero, etiam posteris ero notus. neque est mirandum, quid ita pluribus sim ignotus. ceteri architecti rogant et ambiunt, ut architectent; mihi autem a praeceptoribus est traditum: rogatum, non rogantem oportere suscipere curam, quod ingenuus color movetur pudore petendo rem suspiciosam. nam beneficium dantes, non accipientes ambiuntur. quid enim putemus suspicari, qui rogetur de patrimonio sumptus faciendos committere gratiae petentis, nisi praedae compendiique eius causa iudicet faciundum?

[¶5] pr.6. 6. Hence it was that the ancients used to entrust their work in the first place to architects of good family, and next inquired whether they had been properly educated, believing that one ought to trust in the honour of a gentleman rather than in the assurance of impudence. And the architects themselves would teach none but their own sons or kinsmen, and trained them to be good men, who could be trusted without hesitation in matters of such importance. But when I see that this grand art is boldly professed by the uneducated and the unskilful, and by men who, far from being acquainted with architecture, have no knowledge even of the carpenter's trade, I can find nothing but praise for those householders who, in the confidence of learning, are emboldened to build for themselves. Their judgment is that, if they must trust to inexperienced persons, it is more becoming to them to use up a good round sum at their own pleasure than at that of a stranger.

> Latin: pr.6. Itaque maiores primum a genere probatis operam tradebant architectis, deinde quaerebant, si honeste essent educati, ingenuo pudori, non audaciae protervitatis permittendum iudicantes. ipsi autem artifices non erudiebant nisi suos liberos aut cognatos et eos viros bonos instituebant, quibus tantarum rerum fidei pecuniae sine dubitatione permitterentur. Cum autem animadverto ab indoctis et inperitis tantae disciplinae magnitudinem iactari et ab îs, qui non modo architecturae sed omnino ne fabricae quidem notitiam habent, non possum non laudare patres familiarum eos, qui litteraturae fiducia confirmati per se aedificantes ita iudicant: si inperitis sit committendum, ipsos potius digniores esse ad suam voluntatem quam ad alienam pecuniae consumere summam.

[¶6] pr.7. 7. Nobody, therefore, attempts to practise any other art in his own home—as, for instance, the shoemaker's, or the fuller's, or any other of the easier kinds—but only architecture, and this is because the professionals do not possess the genuine art but term themselves architects falsely. For these reasons I have thought proper to compose most carefully a complete treatise on architecture and its principles, believing that it will be no unacceptable gift to all the world. In the fifth book I have said what I had to say about the convenient arrangement of public works; in this I shall set forth the theoretical principles and the symmetrical proportions of private houses.

> Latin: pr.7. Itaque nemo artem ullam aliam conatur domi facere, uti sutrinam, fullonicam aut ex ceteris, quae sunt faciliores, nisi architecturam, ideo quod, qui profitentur, non arte vera sed falso nominantur architecti. quas ob res corpus architecturae rationesque eius putavi diligentissime conscribendas, opinans munus omnibus gentibus non ingratum futurum. igitur, quoniam in quinto de opportunitate communium operum perscripsi, in hoc volumine privatorum aedificiorum ratiocinationes et commensus symmetriarum explicabo.

[¶7] 1.1. 1. IF our designs for private houses are to be correct, we must at the outset take note of the countries and climates in which they are built. One style of house seems appropriate to build in Egypt, another in Spain, a different kind in Pontus, one still different in Rome, and so on with lands and countries of other characteristics. This is because one part of the earth is directly under the sun's course, another is far away from it, while another lies midway between these two. Hence, as the position of the heaven with regard to a given tract on the earth leads naturally to different characteristics, owing to the inclination of the circle of the zodiac and the course of the sun, it is obvious that designs for houses ought similarly to conform to the nature of the country and to diversities of climate.

> Latin: 1.1. Haec autem ita erunt recte disposita, si primo animadversum fuerit, quibus regionibus aut quibus inclinationibus mundi constituantur. namque aliter Aegypto, aliter Hispania, non eodem modo Ponto, dissimiliter Romae, item ceteris terrarum et regionum proprietatibus oportere videntur constitui genera aedificiorum, quod alia parte solis cursu premitur tellus, alia longe ab eo distat, alia per medium temperatur. igitur, uti constitutio mundi ad terrae spatium inclinatione signiferi circuli et solis cursu disparibus qualitatibus naturaliter est conlocata, ad eundem modum etiam ad regionum rationes caelique varietates videntur aedificiorum debere dirigi conlocationes.

[¶8] 1.2. 2. In the north, houses should be entirely roofed over and sheltered as much as possible, not in the open, though having a warm exposure. But on the other hand, where the force of the sun is great in the southern countries that suffer from heat, houses must be built more in the open and with a northern or northeastern exposure. Thus we may amend by art what nature, if left to herself, would mar. In other situations, also, we must make modifications to correspond to the position of the heaven and its effects on climate.

> Latin: 1.2. Sub septentrione aedificia testudinata et maxime conclusa et non patentia, sed conversa ad calidas partes oportere fieri videntur. contra autem sub impetu solis meridianis regionibus, quod premuntur a calore, patentiora conversaque ad septentrionem et aquilonem sunt faciunda. ita, quod ultra natura laedit, arte erit emendandum. item reliquis regionibus ad eundem modum ⟨debet⟩ temperari, quemadmodum caelum est ad inclinationem mundi conlocatum.

[¶9] 1.3. 3. These effects are noticeable and discernible not only in things in nature, but they also are observable in the limbs and bodies of entire races. In places on which the sun throws out its heat in moderation, it keeps human bodies in their proper condition, and where its path is very close at hand, it parches them up, and burns out and takes away the proportion of moisture which they ought to possess. But, on the other hand, in the cold regions that are far away from the south, the moisture is not drawn out by hot weather, but the atmosphere is full of dampness which diffuses moisture into the system, and makes the frame larger and the pitch of the voice deeper. This is also the reason why the races that are bred in the north are of vast height, and have fair complexions, straight red hair, grey eyes, and a great deal of blood, owing to the abundance of moisture and the coolness of the atmosphere.

> Latin: 1.3. Haec autem ex natura rerum sunt animadvertenda et consideranda atque etiam ex membris corporibusque gentium observanda. namque sol quibus locis mediocriter profundit vapores, in his conservat corpora temperata; quaeque proxime currendo deflagrat, eripit exurendo temperaturam umoris; contra vero refrigeratis regionibus, quod absunt a meridie longe, non exhauritur a caloribus umor, sed ex caelo roscidus aer in corpora fundens umorem efficit ampliores corporaturas vocisque sonitus graviores. ex eo quoque, ⟨quae⟩ sub septentrionibus nutriuntur gentes, inmanibus corporibus, candidis coloribus, directo capillo et rufo, oculis caesis, sanguine multo ab umoris plenitate caelique refrigerationibus sunt conformati;

[¶10] 1.4. 4. On the contrary, those that are nearest to the southern half of the axis, and that lie directly under the sun's course, are of lower stature, with a swarthy complexion, hair curling, black eyes, strong legs, and but little blood on account of the force of the sun. Hence, too, this poverty of blood makes them over-timid to stand up against the sword, but great heat and fevers they can endure without timidity, because their frames are bred up in the raging heat. Hence, men that are born in the north are rendered over-timid and weak by fever, but their wealth of blood enables them to stand up against the sword without timidity.

> Latin: 1.4. Qui autem sunt proximi ad axem meridianum subiectique solis cursui, brevioribus corporibus, colore fusco, crispo capillo, oculis nigris, [cruribus validis,] sanguine exiguo solis impetu perficiuntur. itaque etiam propter sanguinis exiguitatem timidiores sunt ferro resistere, sed ardores ac febres sufferunt sine timore, quod nutrita sunt eorum membra cum fervore; itemque corpora, quae nascuntur sub septentrione, a febri sunt timidiora et inbecilla, sanguinis autem abundantia ferro resistunt sine timore.

[¶11] 1.5. 5. The pitch of the voice is likewise different and varying in quality with different nations, for the following reasons. The terminating points east and west on the level of the earth, where the upper and lower parts of the heaven are divided, seem to lie in a naturally balanced circle which mathematicians call the Horizon. Keeping this idea definitely in mind, if we imagine a line drawn from the northern side of the circumference (N) to the side which lies above the southern half of the axis (S), and from here another line obliquely up to the pivot at the summit, beyond the stars composing the Great Bear (the pole star P), we shall doubtless see that we have in the heaven a triangular figure like that the musical instrument which the Greeks call the “sambuca.”

> Latin: 1.5. Non minus sonus vocis in generibus gentium dispares et varias habet qualitates, ideo quod terminatio orientis et occidentis circa terrae librationem, qua dividitur pars superior et inferior mundi, habere videtur libratam naturali modo circumitionem, quam etiam mathematici ὁρίζοντα dicunt. igitur cum id habemus certum ab imo sustinens, ab labro, quod est in regione septentrionali, linea traiecta ad id, quod est supra meridianum axem, ab eoque altera obliqua in altitudinem ad summum cardinem, qui est post stellas septentrionum, sine dubitatione animadvertemus ex eo esse schema trigonii mundo, uti organi, quam σαμβύκη Graeci dicunt.

[¶12] 1.6. 6. And so, under the space which is nearest to the pivot at the bottom, off the southern portions of the line of the axis, are found nations that on account of the slight altitude of the heaven above them, have shrill and very high-pitched voices, like the string nearest to the angle in the musical instrument. Next in order come other nations as far as the middle of Greece, with lower elevations of the voice; and from this middle point they go on in regular order up to the extreme north, where, under high altitudes, the vocal utterance of the inhabitants is, under natural laws, produced in heavier tones. Thus it is obvious that the system of the universe as a whole is, on account of the inclination of the heaven, composed in a most perfect harmony through the temporary power of the sun.

> Latin: 1.6. Itaque quod est spatium proximum imo cardini ab axis linea in meridianis finibus, sub eo loco quae sunt nationes, propter brevitatem altitudinis ad mundum sonitum vocis faciunt tenuem et acutissimum, uti in organo chorda, quae est proxima angulo. secundum eam autem reliquae ad mediam Graeciam remissiones efficiunt in nationibus sonorum scansione. item a medio in ordinem crescendo ad extremos septentriones sub altitudines caeli nationum spiritus sonitibus gravioribus a natura rerum exprimuntur. ita videtur mundi conceptio tota propter inclinationem consonantissime per solis temperaturam ad harmoniam esse composita.

[¶13] 1.7. 7. The nations, therefore, that lie midway between the pivots at the southern and the northern extremities of the axis, converse in a voice of middle pitch, like the notes in the middle of a musical scale; but, as we proceed towards the north, the distances to the heaven become greater, and so the nations there, whose vocal utterance is reduced by the moisture to the “hypatès” and to “proslambanomenon,” are naturally obliged to speak in heavier tones. In the same way, as we proceed from the middle point to the south, the voices of the nations there correspond in extreme height of pitch and in shrillness to the “paranetès” and “netès” 8.

> Latin: 1.7. Igitur quae nationes sunt inter axis meridiani cardinem ac septentrionalis medio positae, uti in diagrammate musico medianae vocis habent sonitum in sermone; quaeque progredientibus ad septentrionem sunt nationes, quod altiores habent distantias mundi, spiritus vocis habentes umore repulsos ad hypatas et proslambanomenon, a natura rerum sonitu graviore coguntur uti; eadem ratione ⟨e⟩ medio progredientibus ad meridiem gentes paranetarum ⟨netarum⟩que acutissimam sonitus vocis perficiunt tenuitatem.

[¶14] 1.8. That it is a fact that things are made heavier from being in places naturally moist, and higher pitched from places that are hot, may be proved from the following experiment. Take two cups which have been baked in the same oven for an equal time, which are of equal weight, and which give the same note when struck. Dip one of them into water and, after taking it out of both. This done, there will be a great difference in their notes, and the cups can no longer be equal in weight. Thus it is with men: though born in the same general form and under the same all-embracing heaven, yet in some of them, on account of the heat in their country, the voice strikes the air on a high note, while in others, on account of abundance of moisture, the quality of tones produced is very heavy.

> Latin: 1.8. Hoc autem verum esse, ex umidis naturae locis graviora fieri et ex fervidis acutiora, licet ita experiendo animadvertere. calices duo in una fornace aeque cocti aequoque pondere ad crepitumque uno sonitu sumantur. ex his unus in aquam demittatur, postea ex aqua eximatur; tunc utrique tangantur. cum enim ita factum fuerit, largiter inter eos sonitus discrepabit, aequoque pondere non poterunt esse. ita et hominum corpora uno genere figurationis et una mundi coniunctione concepta alia propter regionis ardorem acutum spiritum aeris exprimunt acutum, alia propter umoris abundantiam gravissimas effundunt sonorum qualitates.

[¶15] 1.9. 9. Further, it is owing to the rarity of the atmosphere that southern nations, with their keen intelligence due to the heat, are very free and swift in the devising of schemes, while northern nations, being enveloped in a dense atmosphere, and chilled by moisture from the obstructing air, have but a sluggish intelligence. That this is so, we may see from the case of snakes. Their movements are most active in hot weather, when they have got rid of the chill due to moisture, whereas at the winter solstice, and in winter weather, they are chilled by the change of temperature, and rendered torpid and motionless. It is therefore no wonder that man's intelligence is made keener by warm air and duller by cold.

> Latin: 1.9. Item propter tenuitatem caeli meridianae nationes ex acuta fervore mente expeditius celeriusque moventur ad consiliorum cogitationes; septentrionales autem gentes infusae crassitudine caeli, propter obstantiam aeris umore refrigeratae stupentes habent mentes. hoc autem ita esse a serpentibus licet aspicere, quae, per calorem cum exhaustam habent umoris refrigerationem, tunc acerrime moventur, per brumalia autem et hiberna tempora ab mutatione caeli refrigeratae, inmotae sunt stupore. ita non est mirandum, si acutiores efficit calidus aer hominum mentes, refrigeratus autem contra tardiores.

[¶16] 1.10. 10. But although southern nations have the keenest wits, and are infinitely clever in forming schemes, yet the moment it comes to displaying valour, they succumb because all manliness of spirit is sucked out of them by the sun. On the other hand, men born in cold countries are indeed readier to meet the shock of arms with great courage and without timidity, but their wits are so slow that they will rush to the charge inconsiderately and inexpertly, thus defeating their own devices. Such being nature's arrangement of the universe, and all these nations being allotted temperaments which are lacking in due moderation, the truly perfect territory, situated under the middle of the heaven, and having on each side the entire extent of the world and its countries, is that which is occupied by the Roman people.

> Latin: 1.10. Cum sint autem meridiane nationes animis acutissimis infinitaque sollertia consiliorum, simul ut ad fortitudinem ingrediuntur, ibi succumbunt, quod habent exsuctas ab sole animorum virtutes; qui vero refrigeratis nascuntur regionibus, ad armorum vehementiam paratiores sunt magnis virtutibus sine timore, sed tarditate animi sine considerantia inruentes sine sollertia suis consiliis refragantur. cum ergo haec ita sint ab natura rerum in mundo conlocata et omnes nationes inmoderatis mixtionibus disparatae, veros inter spatium totius orbis terrarum regionesque medio mundi populus Romanus possidet fines.

[¶17] 1.11. 11. In fact, the races of Italy are the most perfectly constituted in both respects—in bodily form and in mental activity to correspond to their valour. Exactly as the planet Jupiter is itself temperate, its course lying midway between Mars, which is very hot, and Saturn, which is very cold, so Italy, lying between the north and the south, is a combination of what is found on each side, and her preeminence is well regulated and indisputable. And so by her wisdom she breaks the courageous onsets of the barbarians, and by her strength of hand thwarts the devices of the southerners. Hence, it was the divine intelligence that set the city of the Roman people in a peerless and temperate country, in order that it might acquire the right to command the whole world.

> Latin: 1.11. Namque temperatissimae ad utramque partem et corporum membris animorumque vigoribus pro fortitudine sunt in Italia gentes. quemadmodum enim Iovis stella inter Martis ferventissimam et Saturni frigidissimam media currens temperatur, eadem ratione Italia inter septentrionalem meridianamque ab utraque parte mixtionibus temperatas et invictas habet laudes. itaque consiliis refringit barbarorum virtutes, forti manu meridianorum cogitationes. ita divina mens civitatem populi Romani egregia temperataque regione conlocavit, uti orbis terrarum imperii potiretur.

[¶18] 1.12. 12. Now if it is a fact that countries differ from one another, and are of various classes according to climate, so that the very nations born therein naturally differ in mental and physical conformation and qualities, we cannot hesitate to make our houses suitable in plan to the peculiarities of nations and races, since we have the expert guidance of nature herself ready to our hand. I have now set forth the peculiar characteristics of localities, so far as I could note them, in the most summary way, and have stated how we ought to make our houses conform to the physical qualities of nations, with due regard to the course of the sun and to climate. Next I shall treat the symmetrical proportions of the different styles of houses, both as wholes and in their separate parts.

> Latin: 1.12. Quodsi ita est, uti dissimiles regiones ab inclinationibus caeli variis generibus sint comparatae, ut etiam naturae gentium disparibus animis et corporum figuris qualitatibusque nascerentur, non dubitemus aedificiorum quoque rationes ad nationum gentiumque proprietates apte distribuere, cum habeamus ab ipsa rerum natura sollertem et expeditam monstrationem. Quoad potui summa ratione proprietates locorum ab natura rerum dispositas animadvertere, exposui et, quemadmodum ad solis cursum et inclinationes caeli oporteat [ad gentium figuras] constituere aedificiorum qualitates, dixi; itaque nunc singulorum generum in aedificiis commensus symmetriarum et universos et separatos breviter explicabo.

[¶19] 2.1. 1. THERE is nothing to which an architect should devote more thought than to the exact proportions of his building with reference to a certain part selected as the standard. After the standard of symmetry has been determined, and the proportionate dimensions adjusted by calculations, it is next the part of wisdom to consider the nature of the site, or questions of use or beauty, and modify the plan by diminutions or additions in such a manner that these diminutions or additions in the symmetrical relations may be seen to be made on correct principles, and without detracting at all from the effect.

> Latin: 2.1. Nulla architecto maior cura esse debet, nisi uti proportionibus ratae partis habeant aedificia rationum exactiones. cum ergo constituta symmetriarum ratio fuerit et commensus ratiocinationibus explicati, tum etiam acuminis est proprium providere ad naturam loci aut usum aut speciem ⟨detractionibus aut⟩ adiectionibus temperaturas ⟨et⟩ efficere, cum de symmetria sit detractum aut adiectum, uti id videatur recte esse formatum in aspectuque nihil desideretur.

[¶20] 2.2. 2. The look of a building when seen close at hand is one thing, on a height it is another, not the same in an enclosed place, still different in the open, and in all these cases it takes much judgment to decide what is to be done. The fact is that the eye does not always give a true impression, but very often leads the mind to form a false judgment. In painted scenery, for example, columns may appear to jut out, mutules to project, and statues to be standing in the foreground, although the picture is of course perfectly flat. Similarly with ships, the oars when under the water are straight, though to the eye they appear to be broken. To the point where they touch the surface of the sea they look straight, as indeed they are, but when dipped under the water they emit from their bodies undulating images which come swimming up through the naturally transparent medium to the surface of the water, and, being there thrown into commotion, make the oars look broken.

> Latin: 2.2. Alia enim ad manum species esse videtur, alia in excelso, non eadem in concluso, dissimilis in aperto, in quibus magni iudicii est opera, quid tandem sit faciundum. non enim veros videtur habere visus effectus, sed fallitur saepius iudicio ab eo mens. quemadmodum etiam in scaenis pictis videntur columnarum proiecturae, mutulorum ecphorae, signorum figurae prominentes, cum sit tabula sine dubio ad regulam plana. similiter in navibus remi, cum sint sub aqua directi, tamen oculis infracti videntur; et quatenus eorum partes tangunt summam planitiem liquoris, apparent, uti sunt, directi, cum vero sub aqua sunt demissi, per naturae perlucidam raritatem remittunt enatantes ab suis corporibus fluentes imagines ad summam aquae planitiem, atque eae ibi commotae efficere videntur infractum remorum oculis aspectum.

[¶21] 2.3. 3. Now whether this appearance is due to the impact of the images, or to the effusion of the rays from the eye, as the physicists hold, in either case it is obvious that the vision may lead us to false impressions.

> Latin: 2.3. Hoc autem sive simulacrorum inpulsu seu radiorum ex oculis effusionibus, uti physicis placet, videmus, utraque ratione videtur ita esse, uti falsa iudicia oculorum habeat aspectus.

[¶22] 2.4. 4. Since, therefore, the reality may have a false appearance, and since things are sometimes represented by the eyes as other than they are, I think it certain that diminutions or additions should be made to suit the nature or needs of the site, but in such fashion that the buildings lose nothing thereby. These results, however, are also attainable by flashes of genius, and not only by mere science.

> Latin: 2.4. Cum ergo, quae sunt vera, falsa videantur et nonnulla aliter quam sunt oculis probentur, non puto oportere esse dubium, quin ad locorum naturas aut necessitates detractiones aut adiectiones fieri debeant, sed ita, uti nihil in his operibus desideretur. haec autem etiam ingeniorum acuminibus, non solum doctrinis efficiuntur.

[¶23] 2.5. 5. Hence, the first thing to settle is the standard of symmetry, from which we need not hesitate to vary. Then, lay out the ground lines of the length and breadth of the work proposed, and when once we have determined its size, let the construction follow this with due regard to beauty of proportion, so that the beholder may feel no doubt of the eurythmy of its effect. I must now tell how this may be brought about, and first I will speak of the proper construction of a cavaedium.

> Latin: 2.5. Igitur statuenda est primum ratio symmetriarum, [a qua sumatur sine dubitatione commutatio] deinde explicetur operis futuri locorum imum spatium longitudinis ⟨et latitudinis⟩, cuius cum semel constituta fuerit magnitudo, sequatur eam proportionis ad decorem apparatio, uti non sit considerantibus aspectus eurythmiae dubius. de qua, quibus rationibus efficiatur, est mihi pronuntiandum, primumque de cavis aedium, uti fieri debeant, dicam.

[¶24] 3.1. 1. THERE are five different styles of cavaedium, termed according to their construction as follows: Tuscan, Corinthian, tetrastyle, displuviate, and testudinate. In the Tuscan, the girders that cross the breadth of the atrium have crossbeams on them, and valleys sloping in and running from the angles of the walls to the angles formed by the beams, and the rainwater falls down along the rafters to the roof-opening (compluvium) in the middle. In the Corinthian, the girders and roof-opening are constructed on these same principles, but the girders run in from the side walls, and are supported all round on columns. In the tetrastyle, the girders are supported at the angles by columns, an arrangement which relieves and strengthens the girders; for thus they have themselves no great span to support, and they are not loaded down by the crossbeams.

> Latin: 3.1. Cava aedium quinque generibus sunt distincta, quorum ita figurae nominantur: tuscanicum, corinthium, tetrastylon, displuviatum, testudinatum. tuscanica sunt, in quibus trabes in atrii latitudine traiectae habeant interpensiva et collicias ab angulis parietum ad angulos tignorum intercurrentes, item asseribus stillicidiorum in medium compluvium deiectus. in corinthiis isdem rationibus trabes et compluvia conlocantur, sed a parietibus trabes recedentes in circumitionis circa columnas componuntur. tetrastyla sunt, quae subiectis sub trabibus angularibus columnis et utilitatem trabibus et firmitatem praestant, quod neque ipsae magnum impetum coguntur habere neque ab interpensivis onerantur.

[¶25] 3.2. 2. In the displuviate, there are beams which slope outwards, supporting the roof and throwing the rainwater off. This style is suitable chiefly in winter residences, for its roof-opening, being high up, is not an obstruction to the light of the dining rooms. It is, however, very troublesome to keep in repair, because the pipes, which are intended to hold the water that comes dripping down the walls all round, cannot take it quickly enough as it runs down from the channels, but get too full and run over, thus spoiling the walls of style. The testudinate is employed where the span is not great, and where large rooms are provided in stories.

> Latin: 3.2. Displuviata autem sunt, in quibus deliquiae arcam sustinentes stillicidia reiciunt. haec hibernaculis maxime praestant utilitates, quod compluvia eorum erecta non obstant luminibus tricliniorum. sed ea habent in refectionibus molestiam magnam, quod circa parietes stillicidia defluentia, cum tument fistulae, quae non celeriter recipiunt ex canalibus aquam defluentem itaque redundantes restagnant, et intestinum et parietes in eis generibus aedificiorum corrumpunt. testudinata vero ibi fiunt, ubi non sunt impetus magni et in contignationibus supra spatiosae redduntur habitationes.

[¶26] 3.3. 3. In width and length, atriums are designed according to three classes. The first is laid out by dividing the length into five parts and giving three parts to the width; the second, by dividing it into three parts and assigning two parts to the width; the third, by using the width to describe a square figure with equal sides, drawing a diagonal line in this square, and giving the atrium the length of this diagonal line.

> Latin: 3.3. Atriorum vero latitudines ac longitudines tribus generibus formantur. et primum genus distribuitur, uti, longitudo cum in quinque partes divisa fuerit, tres partes latitudini dentur; alterum, cum in tres partes dividatur, duae partes latitudini tribuantur; tertium, uti latitudo in quadrato paribus lateribus describatur inque eo quadrato diagonios linea ducatur, et quantum spatium habuerit ea linea diagonii, tanta longitudo atrio detur.

[¶27] 3.4. 4. Their height up to the girders should be one fourth less than their width, the rest being the proportion assigned to the ceiling and the roof above the girders. The alae, to the right and left, should have a width equal to one third of the length of the atrium, when that is from thirty to forty feet long. From forty to fifty feet, divide the length by three and one half, and give the alae the result. When it is from fifty to sixty feet in length, devote one fourth of the length to the alae. From sixty to eighty feet, divide the length by four and one half and let the result be the width of the alae. From eighty feet to one hundred feet, the length divided into five parts will produce the right width for the alae. Their lintel beams should be placed high enough to make the height of the alae equal to their width.

> Latin: 3.4. Altitudo eorum, quanta longitudo fuerit quarta dempta, sub trabes extollatur; reliquum lacunariorum et arcae supra trabes spatio tribuatur. Alis dextra ac sinistra latitudinis ⟨spatium⟩, cum sit atrii longitudo ab XXX pedibus ad pedes XL, ex tertia parte eius constituatur. ab XL ad pedes L longitudo dividatur in partes tres ⟨semis⟩, ex his una pars alis detur. cum autem erit longitudo ab quinquaginta pedibus ad sexaginta, quarta pars longitudinis alis tribuatur. a pedibus LX ad LXXX longitudo dividatur in partes quattuor et dimidiam, ex his una pars fiat alarum latitudo. a pedibus octoginta ad pedes centum in quinque partes divisa longitudo iustam constituerit latitudinem alarum. trabes earum liminares ita altae ponantur, ut altitudines latitudinibus sint aequales. imagines cum suis ornamentis ad latitudinem alarum sint constitutae.

[¶28] 3.5. 5. The tablinum should be given two thirds of the width of the atrium when the latter is twenty feet wide. If it is from thirty to forty feet, let half the width of the atrium be devoted to the tablinum. When it is from forty to sixty feet, divide the width into five parts and let two of these be set apart for the tablinum. In the case of smaller atriums, the symmetrical proportions cannot be the same as in larger. For if, in the case of the smaller, we employ the proportion that belong to the larger, both tablina and alae must be unserviceable, while if, in the case of the larger, we employ the proportions of the smaller, the rooms mentioned will be huge monstrosities. Hence, I have thought it best to describe exactly their respective proportionate sizes, with a view both to convenience and to beauty.

> Latin: 3.5. Tablinum, si latitudo atrii erit pedum viginti, dempta tertia eius spatio reliquum tribuatur. si erit ab pedibus XXX ad XL, ex atrii latitudine tablino dimidium tribuatur. cum autem ab XL ad LX, latitudo dividatur in partes quinque, ex his duae tablino constituantur. non enim atria minora maioribus easdem possunt habere symmetriarum rationes. si enim maiorum symmetriis utemur in minoribus, neque tablina neque alae utilitatem poterunt habere, sin autem minorum in maioribus utemur, vasta et inmania in his ea erunt membra. itaque generatim magnitudinum rationes exquisitas et utilitati et aspectui conscribendas putavi.

[¶29] 3.6. 6. The height of the tablinum at the lintel should be one eighth more than its width. Its ceiling should exceed this height by one third of the width. The fauces in the case of smaller atriums should be two thirds, and in the case of half the width of the tablinum. Let the busts of ancestors with their ornaments be set up at a height corresponding to the width of the alae. The proportionate width and height of doors may be settled, if they are Doric, in the Doric manner, and if Ionic, in the Ionic manner, according to the rules of symmetry which have been given about portals in the fourth book. In the roof-opening let an aperture be left with a breadth of not less than one fourth nor more than one third the width of the atrium, and with a length proportionate to that of the atrium.

> Latin: 3.6. Altitudo tablini ad trabem adiecta latitudinis octava constituatur. lacunaria eius tertia latitudinis ad altitudinem adiecta extollantur. Fauces minoribus atriis e tablini latitudine dempta tertia, maioribus dimidia constituantur. Latitudines ostiorum ad altitudinem; si dorica erunt, uti dorica, si ionica erunt, uti ionica perficiantur, quemadmodum de thyromatis in quarto libro rationes symmetriarum sunt expositae. Compluvii lumen latum latitudinis atrii ne minus quarta, ne plus tertia parte relinquatur; longitudo, uti atrii pro rata parte fiat.

[¶30] 3.7. 7. Peristyles, lying athwart, should be one third longer than they are deep, and their columns as high as the colonnades are wide. Intercolumniations of peristyles should be not less than three nor more than four times the thickness of the columns. If the columns of the peristyle are to be made in the Doric style, take the modules which I have given in the fourth book, on the Doric order, and arrange the columns with reference to these modules and to the scheme of the triglyphs.

> Latin: 3.7. Peristyla autem in transverso tertia parte longiora sint quam introrsus. columnae tam altae quam porticus latae fuerint peristyliorum; intercolumnia ne minus trium, ne plus quattuor columnarum crassitudine inter se distent. sin autem dorico more in peristylo columnae erunt faciundae, uti in quarto libro de doricis scripsi, ita moduli sumantur, et ad eos modulos triglyphorumque rationes disponantur.

[¶31] 3.8. 8. Dining rooms ought to be twice as long as they are wide. The height of all oblong rooms should be calculated by adding together their measured length and width, taking one half of this total, and using the result for the height. But in the case of exedrae or square oeci, let the height be brought up to one and one half times the width. Picture galleries, like exedrae, should be constructed of generous dimensions. Corinthian and tetrastyle oeci, as well as those termed Egyptian, should have the same symmetrical proportions in width and length as the dining rooms described above, but, since they have columns in them, their dimensions should be ampler.

> Latin: 3.8. Tricliniorum quanta latitudo fuerit, bis tanta longitudo fieri debebit. altitudines omnium conclaviorum, quae oblonga fuerint, sic habere debent rationem, uti longitudinis et latitudinis mensura componatur et ex ea summa dimidium sumatur, et quantum fuerit, tantum altitudini detur. sin autem exhedrae aut oeci quadrati fuerint, latitudinis dimidia addita altitudines educantur. pinacothecae uti exhedrae amplis magnitudinibus sunt constituendae. oeci corinthii tetrastylique quique aegyptii vocantur latitudinis et longitudinis, uti supra tricliniorum symmetriae scriptae sunt, ita habeant rationem, sed propter columnarum interpositiones spatiosiores constituantur.