pr.1. 1. IT was a wise and useful provision of the ancients to transmit their thoughts to posterity by recording them in treatises, so that they should not be lost, but, being developed in succeeding generations through publication in books, should gradually attain in later times, to the highest refinement of learning. And so the ancients deserve no ordinary, but unending thanks, because they did not pass on in envious silence, but took care that their ideas of every kind should be transmitted to the future in their writings.
pr.1. Maiores cum sapienter tum etiam utiliter instituerunt, per commentariorum relationes cogitata tradere posteris, ut ea non interirent, sed singulis aetatibus crescentia voluminibus edita gradatim pervenirent vetustatibus ad summam doctrinarum subtilitatem. itaque non mediocres sed infinitae sunt his agendae gratiae, quod non invidiose silentes praetermiserunt, sed omnium generum sensus conscriptionibus memoriae tradendos curaverunt.
pr.2. 2. If they had not done so, we could not have known what deeds were done in Troy, nor what Thales, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Xenophanes, and the other physicists thought about nature, and what rules Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurus, and other philosophers laid down for the conduct of human life; nor would the deeds and motives of Croesus, Alexander, Darius, and other kings have been known, unless the ancients had compiled treatises, and published them in commentaries to be had in universal remembrance with posterity.
pr.2. Namque si non ita fecissent, non potuissemus scire, quae res in Troia fuissent gestae, nec quid Thales, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Xenophanes reliquique physici sensissent de rerum natura, quasque Socrates, Platon, Aristoteles, Zenon, Epicurus aliique philosophi hominibus agendae vitae terminationes finissent, seu Croesus, Alexander, Darius ceterique reges quas res aut quibus rationibus gessissent, fuissent notae, nisi maiores praeceptorum comparationibus omnium memoriae ad posteritatem commentariis extulissent.
pr.3. 3. So, while they deserve our thanks, those, on the contrary, deserve our reproaches, who steal the writings of such men and publish them as their own; and those also, who depend in their writings, not on their own ideas, but who enviously do wrong to the works of others and boast of it, deserve not merely to be blamed, but to be sentenced to actual punishment for their wicked course of life. With the ancients, however, it is said that such things did not pass without pretty strict chastisement. What the results of their judgments were, it may not be out of place to set forth as they are transmitted to us.
pr.3. Itaque quemadmodum his gratiae sunt agendae, contra, qui eorum scripta furantes pro suis praedicant, sunt vituperandi, quique non propriis cogitationibus scriptorum nituntur, sed invidis moribus aliena violantes gloriantur, non modo sunt reprehendendi, sed etiam, quia impio more vixerunt, poena condemnandi. nec tamen haec res non vindicatae curiosius ab antiquis esse memorantur. quorum exitus iudiciorum qui fuerint, non est alienum, quemadmodum sint nobis traditi, explicare.
pr.4. 4. The kings of the house of Attalus having established, under the influence of the great charms of literature, an excellent library at Pergamus to give pleasure to the public, Ptolemy also was aroused with no end of enthusiasm and emulation into exertions to make a similar provision with no less diligence at Alexandria. Having done so with the greatest care, he felt that this was not enough without providing for its increase and development, for which he sowed the seed. He established public contests in honour of the Muses and Apollo, and appointed prizes and honours for victorious authors in general, as is done in the case of athletes.
pr.4. Reges Attalici magnis philologiae dulcedinibus inducti cum egregiam bybliothecam Pergami ad communem delectationem instituissent, tunc item Ptolomaeus infinito zelo cupiditatisque incitatus studio non minoribus industriis ad eundem modum contenderat Alexandriae comparare. cum autem summa diligentia perfecisset, non putavit id satis esse, nisi propagationibus inseminando curaret augendam. itaque Musis et Apollini ludos dedicavit et, quemadmodum athletarum, sic communium scriptorum victoribus praemia et honores constituit.
pr.5. 5. These arrangements having been made, and the contests being at hand, it became necessary to select literary men as judges to decide them. The king soon selected six of the citizens, but could not so easily find a proper person to be the seventh. He therefore turned to those who presided over the library, and asked whether they knew anybody who was suitable for the purpose. Then they told him that there was one Aristophanes who was daily engaged in reading through all the books with the greatest enthusiasm and the greatest care. Hence, when the gathering for the contests took place, and separate seats were set apart for the judges, Aristophanes was summoned with the rest, and sat down in the place assigned to him.
pr.5. His ita institutis, cum ludi adessent, iudices litterati, qui ea probarent, erant legendi. rex, cum iam sex civitatis lectos habuisset nec tam cito septumum idoneum inveniret, retulit ad eos, qui supra bybliothecam fuerunt, et quaesiit, si quem novissent ad id expeditum. tunc ei dixerunt esse quendam Aristophanen, qui summo studio summaque diligentia cotidie omnes libros ex ordine perlegeret. itaque conventu ludorum, cum secretae sedes iudicibus essent distributae, cum ceteris Aristophanes citatus, quemadmodum fuerat locus ei designatus, sedit.
pr.6. 6. A group of poets was first brought in to contend, and, as they recited their compositions, the whole audience by its applause showed the judges what it approved. So, when they were individually asked for their votes, the six agreed, and awarded the first prize to the poet who, as they observed, had most pleased the multitude, and the second to the one who came next. But Aristophanes, on being asked for his vote, urged that the poet who had least pleased the audience should be declared to be the first.
pr.6. Primo poetarum ordine ad certationem inducto cum recitarentur scripta, populus cunctus significando monebat iudices, quod probarent. itaque, cum ab singulis sententiae sunt rogatae, sex una dixerunt et, quem maxime animadverterunt multitudini placuisse, ei primum praemium, insequenti secundum tribuerunt. Aristophanes vero, cum ab eo sententia rogaretur, eum primum renuntiari iussit, qui minime populo placuisset.
pr.7. 7. As the king and the entire assembly showed great indignation, he arose, and asked and received permission to speak. Silence being obtained, he stated that only one of them—his man a poet, and that the rest had recited things not their own; furthermore, that judges ought to give their approval, not to thefts, but to original compositions. The people were amazed, and the king hesitated, but Aristophanes, trusting to his memory, had a vast number of volumes brought out from bookcases which he specified, and, by comparing them with what had been recited, obliged the thieves themselves to make confession. So, the king gave orders that they should be accused of theft, and after condemnation sent them off in disgrace; but he honoured Aristophanes with the most generous gifts, and put him in charge of the library.
pr.7. Cum autem rex et universi vehementer indignarentur, surrexit et rogando impetravit, ut paterentur se dicere. itaque silentio facto docuit unum ex his eum esse poetam, ceteros aliena recitavisse; oportere autem iudicantes non furta sed scripta probare. admirante populo et rege dubitante, fretus memoriae certis armariis infinita volumina eduxit et ea cum recitatis conferendo coegit ipsos furatos de se confiteri. itaque rex iussit cum his agi furti condemnatosque cum ignominia dimisit, Aristophanen vero amplissimis muneribus ornavit et supra bybliothecam constituit.
pr.8. 8. Some years later, Zoilus, who took the surname of Homeromastix, came from Macedonia to Alexandria and read to the king his writings directed against the Iliad and Odyssey. Ptolemy, seeing the father of poets and captain of all literature abused in his absence, and his works, to which all the world looked up in admiration, disparaged by this person, made no rejoinder, although he thought it an outrage. Zoilus, however, after remaining in the kingdom some time, sank into poverty, and sent a message to the king, requesting that something might be bestowed upon him.
pr.8. Insequentibus annis a Macedonia Zoilus, qui adoptavit cognomen, ut Homeromastix vocitaretur, Alexandriam venit suaque scripta contra Iliadem et Odyssean comparata regi recitavit. Ptolomaeus vero, cum animadvertisset poetarum parentem philologiaeque omnis ducem absentem vexari et, cuius ab cunctis gentibus scripta suspicerentur, ab eo vituperari, indignans nullum ei dedit responsum. Zoilus autem, cum diutius in regno fuisset, inopia pressus summisit ad regem postulans, ut aliquid sibi tribueretur.
pr.9. 9. But it is said that the king replied, that Homer, though dead a thousand years ago, had all that time been the means of livelihood for many thousands of men; similarly, a person who laid claim to higher genius ought to be able to support not one man only, but many others. And in short, various stories are told about his death, which was like that of one found guilty of parricide. Some writers have said that he was crucified by Philadelphus; others that he was stoned at Chios; others again that he was thrown alive upon a funeral pyre at Smyrna. Whichever of these forms of death befell him, it was a fitting punishment and his just due; for one who accuses men that cannot answer and show, face to face, what was the meaning of their writings, obviously deserves no other treatment.
pr.9. Rex vero respondisse dicitur Homerum, qui ante annos mille decessisset, aevo perpetuo multa milia hominum pascere, item debere, qui meliore ingenio se profiteretur, non modo unum sed etiam plures alere posse. et ad summam mors eius ut parricidii damnati varie memoratur. alii enim scripserunt a Philadelpho esse in crucem fixum, nonnulli Chii lapides esse coniectos, alii Zmyrnae vivum in pyram coniectum. quorum utrum ei acciderit, merenti digna constitit poena; non enim aliter videtur promereri, qui citat eos, quorum responsum, quid senserint scribentes, non potest coram indicari.
pr.10. 10. But for my part, Caesar, I am not bringing forward the present treatise after changing the titles of other men's books and inserting my own name, nor has it been my plan to win approbation by finding fault with the ideas of another. On the contrary, I express unlimited thanks to all the authors that have in the past, by compiling from antiquity remarkable instances of the skill shown by genius, provided us with abundant materials of different kinds. Drawing from them as it were water from springs, and converting them to our own purposes, we find our powers of writing rendered more fluent and easy, and, relying upon such authorities, we venture to produce new systems of instruction.
pr.10. Ego vero, Caesar, neque alienis indicibus mutatis interposito nomine meo id profero corpus neque ullius cogitata vituperans institui ex eo me adprobare, sed omnibus scriptoribus infinitas ago gratias, quod egregiis ingeniorum sollertiis ex aevo conlatis abundantes alius alio genere copias praeparaverunt, unde nos uti fontibus haurientes aquam et ad propria proposita traducentes facundiores et expeditiores habemus ad scribendum facultates talibusque confidentes auctoribus audemus institutiones novas comparare.
pr.11. 11. Hence, as I saw that such beginnings on their part formed an introduction suited to the nature of my own purpose, I set out to draw from them, and to go somewhat further. In the first place Agatharcus, in Athens, when Aeschylus was bringing out a tragedy, painted a scene, and left a commentary about it. This led Democritus and Anaxagoras to write on the same subject, showing how, given a centre in a definite place, the lines should naturally correspond with due regard to the point of sight and the divergence of the visual rays, so that by this deception a faithful representation of the appearance of buildings might be given in painted scenery, and so that, though all is drawn on a vertical flat facade, some parts may seem to be withdrawing into the background, and others to be standing out in front.
pr.11. Igitur tales ingressus eorum quia ad propositi mei rationes animadverti praeparatos, inde sumendo progredi coepi. namque primum Agatharchus Athenis Aeschylo docente tragoediam scaenam fecit et de ea commentarium reliquit. ex eo moniti Democritus et Anaxagoras de eadem re scripserunt, quemadmodum oporteat ad aciem oculorum radiorumque extentionem certo loco centro constituto lineas ratione naturali respondere, uti de certa re certae imagines aedificiorum in scaenarum picturis redderent speciem et, quae in directis planisque frontibus sint figurata, alia abscedentia, alia prominentia esse videantur.
pr.12. 12. Afterwards Silenus published a book on the proportions of Doric structures; Theodorus, on the Doric temple of Juno which is in Samos; Chersiphron and Metagenes, on the Ionic temple at Ephesus which is Diana's; Pytheos, on the Ionic fane of Minerva which is at Priene; Ictinus and Carpion, on the Doric temple of Minerva which is on the acropolis of Athens; Theodorus the Phocian, on the Round Building which is at Delphi; Philo, on the proportions of temples, and on the naval arsenal which was at the port of Peiraeus; Hermogenes, on the Ionic temple of Diana which is at Magnesia, a pseudodipteral, and on that of Father Bacchus at Teos, a monopteral; Arcesius, on the Corinthian proportions, and on the Ionic temple of Aesculapius at Tralles, which it is said that he built with his own hands; on the Mausoleum, Satyrus and Pytheos who were favoured with the greatest and highest good fortune.
pr.12. Postea Silenus de symmetriis doricorum edidit volumen; de aede Iunonis, quae est Sami dorica, Theodorus; ionice Ephesi quae est Dianae, Chersiphron et Metagenes; de fano Minervae, quod est Priene ionicum, Pytheos; item de aede Minervae, dorice quae est Athenis in arce, Ictinos et Carpion; Theodorus Phocaeus de tholo, qui est Delphis; Philo de aedium sacrarum symmetriis et de armamentario, quod fuerat Piraei portu; Hermogenes de aede Dianae, ionice quae est Magnesia pseudodipteros, et Liberi Patris Teo monopteros; item Arcesius de symmetriis corinthiis et ionico Trallibus Aesculapio, quod etiam ipse sua manu dicitur fecisse; de Mausoleo Satyrus et Pytheos.
pr.13. 13. For men whose artistic talents are believed to have won them the highest renown for all time, and laurels forever green, devised and executed works of supreme excellence in this building. The decoration and perfection of the different facades were undertaken by different artists in emulation with each other: Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, Praxiteles, and, as some think, Timotheus; and the distinguished excellence of their art made that building famous among the seven wonders of the world.
pr.13. Quibus vero felicitas maximum summumque contulit munus; quorum enim artes aevo perpetuo nobilissimas laudes et sempiterno florentes habere iudicantur, ei cogitatis egregias operas praestiterunt. namque singulis frontibus singuli artifices sumpserunt certatim partes ad ornandum et probandum Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, Praxiteles, nonnulli etiam putant Timotheum, quorum artis eminens excellentia coegit ad septem spectaculorum eius operis pervenire famam.
pr.14. 14. Then, too, many less celebrated men have written treatises on the laws of symmetry, such as Nexaris, Theocydes, Demophilus, Pollis, Leonidas, Silanion, Melampus, Sarnacus, and Euphranor; others again on machinery, such as Diades, Archytas, Archimedes, Ctesibius, Nymphodorus, Philo of Byzantium, Diphilus, Democles, Charias, Polyidus, Pyrrus, and Agesistratus. From their commentaries I have gathered what I saw was useful for the present subject, and formed it into one complete treatise, and this principally, because I saw that many books in this field had been published by the Greeks, but very few indeed by our countrymen. Fuficius, in fact, was the first to undertake to publish a book on this subject. Terentius Varro, also, in his work “On the Nine Sciences” has one book on architecture, and Publius Septimius, two.
pr.14. Praeterea minus nobiles multi praecepta symmetriarum conscripserunt, uti Nexaris, Theocydes, Demophilos, Pollis, Leonidas, Silanion, Melampus, Sarnacus, Euphranor. non minus de machinationibus, uti Diades, Archytas, Archimedes, Ctesibios, Nymphodorus, Philo Byzantius, Diphilos, Democles, Charias, Polyidos, Pyrros, Agesistratos. quorum ex commentariis, quae utilia esse his rebus animadverti, collecta in unum coegi corpus, et ideo maxime, quod animadverti in ea re ab Graecis volumina plura edita, ab nostris oppido quam pauca. Fuficius enim nimirum de his rebus primus instituit edere volumen, item Terentius Varro de novem disciplinis unum de architectura, P. Septimius duo.
pr.15. 15. But to this day nobody else seems to have bent his energies to this branch of literature, although there have been, even among our fellow-citizens in old times, great architects who could also have written with elegance. For instance, in Athens, the architects Antistates, Callaeschrus, Antimachides, and Pormus laid the foundations when Peisistratus began the temple of Olympian Jove, but after his death they abandoned the undertaking, on account of political troubles. Hence it was that when, about four hundred years later, King Antiochus promised to pay the expenses of that work, the huge cella, the surrounding columns in dipteral arrangement, and the architraves and other ornaments, adjusted according to the laws of symmetry, were nobly constructed with great skill and supreme knowledge by Cossutius, a citizen of Rome. Moreover, this work has a name for its grandeur, not only in general, but also among the select few.
pr.15. Amplius vero in id genus scripturae adhuc nemo incubuisse videtur, cum fuissent et antiqui cives magni architecti, qui potuissent non minus eleganter scripta comparare. namque Athenis Antistates et Callaeschros et Antimachides et Porinos architecti Pisistrato aedem Iovi Olympio facienti fundamenta constituerunt, post mortem autem eius propter interpellationem reipublicae incepta reliquerunt. itaque circiter annis quadringentis post Antiochus rex, cum in id opus inpensam esset pollicitus, cellae magnitudinem et columnarum circa dipteron conlocationem epistyliorumque et ceterorum ornamentorum ad symmetriam distributionem magna sollertia scientiaque summa civis Romanus Cossutius nobiliter est architectatus. id autem opus non modo vulgo, sed etiam in paucis a magnificentia nominatur.
pr.16. 16. There are, in fact, four places possessing temples embellished with workmanship in marble that causes them to be mentioned in a class by themselves with the highest renown. To their great excellence and the wisdom of their conception they owe their place of esteem in the ceremonial worship of the gods. First there is the temple of Diana at Ephesus, in the Ionic style, undertaken by Chersiphron of Gnosus and his son Metagenes, and said to have been finished later by Demetrius, who was himself a slave of Diana, and by Paeonius the Milesian. At Miletus, the temple of Apollo, also Ionic in its proportions, was the undertaking of the same Paeonius and of the Ephesian Daphnis. At Eleusis, the cella of Ceres and Proserpine, of vast size, was completed to the roof by Ictinus in the Doric style, but without exterior columns and with plenty of room for the customary sacrifices.
pr.16. Nam quattuor locis sunt aedium sacrarum marmoreis operibus ornatae dispositiones, [e quibus propriae de his nominationes clarissima fama nominantur] quorum excellentiae prudentesque cogitationum apparatus suspectus habent in deorum σημαντικοῖς. primumque aedes Ephesi Dianae ionico genere ab Chersiphrone Gnosio et filio eius Metagene est instituta, quam postea Demetrius, ipsius Dianae servus, et Paeonius Ephesius dicuntur perfecisse. Mileti Apollini item ionicis symmetriis ⟨aedem⟩ idem Paeonius Daphnisque Milesius instituerunt. Eleusine Cereris et Proserpinae cellam inmani magnitudine Ictinos dorico more sine exterioribus columnis ad laxamentum usus sacrificiorum pertexit.
pr.17. 17. Afterwards, however, when Demetrius of Phalerum was master of Athens, Philo set up columns in front before the temple, and made it prostyle. Thus, by adding an entrance hall, he gave the initiates more room, and imparted the greatest dignity to the building. Finally, in Athens, the temple of the Olympion with its dimensions on a generous scale, and built in the Corinthian style and proportions, is said to have been constructed, as written above, by Cossutius, no commentary by whom has been found. But Cossutius is not the only man by whom we should like to have writings on our subject. Another is Gaius Mucius, who, having great knowledge on which to rely, completed the cella, columns, and entablature of the Marian temple of Honour and Valour, in symmetrical proportions according to the accepted rules of the art. If this building had been of marble, so that besides the refinement of its art it possessed the dignity coming from magnificence and great outlay, it would be reckoned among the first and greatest of works.
pr.17. Eam autem postea, cum Demetrius Phalereus Athenis rerum potiretur, Philo ante templum in fronte columnis constitutis prostylon fecit; ita aucto vestibulo laxamentum initiantibus operique summam adiecit auctoritatem. in asty vero Olympium amplo modulorum comparatu corinthiis symmetriis et proportionibus, uti supra scriptum est, architectandum Cossutius suscepisse memoratur, cuius commentarium nullum est inventum. nec tamen a Cossutio solum de his rebus scripta sunt desideranda sed etiam a G. Mucio, qui magna scientia confisus aedis Honoris et Virtutis Marianae cellae columnarumque et epistyliorum symmetrias legitimis artis institutis perfecit. id vero si marmoreum fuisset, ut haberet, quemadmodum ab arte subtilitatem, sic ab magnificentia et inpensis auctoritatem, in primis et summis operibus nominaretur.
pr.18. 18. Since it appears, then, that our architects in the old days, and a good many even in our own times, have been as great as those of the Greeks, and nevertheless only a few of them have published treatises, I resolved not to be silent, but to treat the different topics methodically in different books. Hence, since I have given an account of private houses in the sixth book, in this, which is the seventh in order, I shall treat of polished finishings and the methods of giving them both beauty and durability.
pr.18. Cum ergo et antiqui nostri inveniantur non minus quam Graeci fuisse magni architecti et nostra memoria satis multi, et ex his pauci praecepta edidissent, non putavi silendum, sed disposite singulis voluminibus de singulis exponere rebus. itaque, quoniam sexto volumine privatorum aedificiorum rationes perscripsi, in hoc, qui septimum tenet numerum, de expolitionibus, quibus rationibus et venustatem et firmitatem habere possint, exponam.
1.1. 1. FIRST I shall begin with the concrete flooring, which is the most important of the polished finishings, observing that great pains and the utmost precaution must be taken to ensure its durability. If this concrete flooring is to be laid level with the ground, let the soil be tested to see whether it is everywhere solid, and if it is, level it off and upon it lay the broken stone with its bedding. But if the floor is either wholly or partly filling, it should be rammed down hard with great care. In case a wooden framework is used, however, we must see that no wall which does not reach up to the top of the house is constructed under the floor. Any wall which is there should preferably fall short, so as to leave the wooden planking above it an unsupported span. If a wall comes up solid, the unyielding nature of its solid structure must, when the joists begin to dry, or to sag and settle, lead to cracks in the floor on the right and left along the line of wall.
1.1. Primumque incipiam de ruderatione, quae principia tenet expolitionum, uti curiosius summaque providentia solidationis ratio habeatur. et si plano pede erit eruderandum, quaeratur, solum si sit perpetuo solidum, et ita exaequetur, et inducatur cum statumine rudus. sin autem omnis aut ex parte congesticius locus fuerit, fistucationibus cum magna cura solidetur. in contignationibus vero diligenter est animadvertendum, ne qui paries, qui non exeat ad summum, sit extructus sub pavimentum, sed potius relaxatus supra se pendentem habeat coaxationem. cum enim solidus exit, contignationibus arescentibus aut pandatione sidentibus, permanens structurae soliditate dextra ac sinistra secundum se facit in pavimentis necessario rimas.
1.2. 2. We must also be careful that no common oak gets in with the winter oak boards, for as soon as common oak boards get damp, they warp and cause cracks in floors. But if there is no winter oak, and necessity drives, for lack of this it seems advisable to use common oak boards cut pretty thin; for the less thick they are, the more easily they can be held in place by being nailed on. Then, at the ends of every joist, nail on two boards so that they shall not be able to warp and stick up at the edges. As for Turkey oak or beech or ash, none of them can last to a great age. When the wooden planking is finished, cover it with fern, if there is any, otherwise with straw, to protect the wood from being hurt by the lime.
1.2. Item danda est opera, ne commisceantur axes aesculini querco, quod quercei, simul umorem perceperunt, se torquentes rimas faciunt in pavimentis. sin autem aesculus non erit et necessitas coegerit propter inopiam querceis ⟨uti⟩, sic videtur esse faciundum, ut secentur tenuiores; quo minus enim valuerint, eo facilius clavis fixi continebuntur. deinde in singulis tignis extremis partibus axis bini clavi figantur, uti nulla ex parte possint se torquendo anguli excitare. namque de cerro aut fago seu farno nullus ad vestutatem potest permanere. coaxationibus factis, si erit, filex, si non, palea substernatur, uti materies ab calcis vitiis defendatur.
1.3. 3. Then, upon this lay the bedding, composed of stones not smaller than can fill the hand. After the bedding is laid, mix the broken stone in the proportions, if it is new, of three parts to one of lime; if it is old material used again, five parts may answer to two in the mixture. Next, lay the mixture of broken stone, bring on your gangs, and beat it again and again with wooden beetles into a solid mass, and let it be not less than three quarters of a foot in thickness when the beating is finished. On this lay the nucleus, consisting of pounded tile mixed with lime in the proportions of three parts to one, and forming a layer not less than six digits thick. On top of the nucleus, the floor, whether made of cut slips or of cubes, should be well and truly laid by rule and level.
1.3. Tunc insuper statuminetur ne minore saxo, quam qui possit manum implere. statuminationibus inductis, rudus si novum erit, ad tres partes una calcis misceatur, si redivivum fuerit, quinque ad duo mixtionis habeant responsum. deinde rudus inducatur et vectibus ligneis, decuriis inductis, crebriter pistatione solidetur, et id non minus pinsum absolutum crassitudine sit dodrantis. insuper ex testa nucleus inducatur mixtionem habens ad tres partes unam calcis, ne minore crassitudine [pavimentum] digitorum senûm. supra nucleum ad regulam et libellam exacta pavimenta struantur sive sectilia seu tesseris.
1.4. 4. After it is laid and set at the proper inclination, let it be rubbed down so that, if it consists of cut slips, the lozenges, or triangles, or squares, or hexagons may not stick up at different levels, but be all jointed together on the same plane with one another; if it is laid in cubes, so that all the edges may be level; for the rubbing down will not be properly finished unless all the edges are on the same level plane. The herring-bone pattern, made of Tibur burnt brick, must also be carefully finished, so as to be without gaps or ridges sticking up, but all flat and rubbed down to rule. When the rubbing down is completely finished by means of the smoothing and polishing processes, sift powdered marble on top, and lay on a coating of lime and sand.
1.4. Cum ea structa fuerint et fastigia sua ex structione habuerint, ita fricentur, uti, si sectilia sint, nulli gradus in scutulis aut trigonis aut quadratis seu favis extent, sed coagmentorum compositio planam habeat inter se directionem, si tesseris structum erit, ut eae omnes angulos habeant aequales; cum enim anguli non fuerint omnes aequaliter plani, non erit exacta, ut oportet, fricatura. item testacea spicata tiburtina sunt diligenter exigenda, ut ne habeant lacunas nec extantes tumulos, sed ⟨sint⟩ extenta et ad regulam perfricata. super fricaturam, levigationibus et polituris cum fuerint perfecta, incernatur marmor, et supra loricae ex calce et harena inducantur.
1.5. 5. In the open air, specially adapted kinds of floors must be made, because their framework, swelling with dampness, or shrinking from dryness, or sagging and settling, injures the floors by these changes; besides, the frost and rime will not let them go unhurt. Hence, if necessity drives, we must proceed as follows in order to make them as free from defects as possible. After finishing the plank flooring, lay a second plank flooring over it at right angles, and nail it down so as to give double protection to the framework. Then, mix with new broken stone one third the quantity of pounded tile, and let lime be added to the mixture in the mortar trough in the proportion of two parts to five.
1.5. Subdiu vero maxime idonea faciunda sunt pavimenta, quod contignationes umore crescentes aut siccitate decrescentes seu pandationibus sidentes movendo se faciunt vitia pavimentis; praeterea gelicidia et pruinae non patiuntur integra permanere. itaque si necessitas coegerit, ut minime vitiosa fiant, sic erit faciundum. cum coaxatum fuerit, super altera coaxatio transversa sternatur clavisque fixa duplicem praebeat contignationi loricationem. deinde ruderi novo tertia pars testae tunsae admisceatur, calcisque duae partes ad quinque mortarii mixtionibus praestent responsum.
1.6. 6. Having made the bedding, lay on this mixture of broken stone, and let it be not less than a foot thick when the beating is finished. Then, after laying the nucleus, as above described, construct the floor of large cubes cut about two digits each way, and let it have an inclination of two digits for every ten feet. If it is well put together and properly rubbed down, it will be free from all flaws. In order that the mortar in the joints may not suffer from frosts, drench it with oil-dregs every year before winter begins. Thus treated, it will not let the hoarfrost enter it.
1.6. Statuminatione facta rudus inducatur, idque pistum absolutum ne minus pede sit crassum. tunc autem nucleo inducto, uti supra scriptum est, pavimentum e tessera grandi circiter binûm digitûm caesa struatur fastigium habens in pedes denos digitos binos; quod si bene temperabitur et recte fricatum fuerit, ab omnibus vitiis erit tutum. uti autem inter coagmenta materies ab gelicidiis ne laboret, fracibus quotannis ante hiemem saturetur; ita non patietur in se recipere gelicidii pruinam.
1.7. 7. If, however, it seems needful to use still greater care, lay, two-foot tiles, jointed together in a bed of mortar, over the broken stone, with little channels of one finger's breadth cut in the faces of all the joints. Connect these channels and fill them with a mixture of lime and oil; then, rub the joints hard and make compact. Thus, the lime sticking in the channels will harden and solidify into a mass, and so prevent water or anything else from penetrating through the joints. After this layer is finished, spread the nucleus upon it, and work it down by beating it with rods. Upon this lay the floor, at the inclination above described, either of large cubes or burnt brick in herring-bone pattern, and floors thus constructed will not soon be spoiled.
1.7. Sin autem curiosius videbitur fieri oportere, tegulae bipedales inter se coagmentatae supra rudus substrata materia conlocentur habentes singulis coagmentorum frontibus excelsos canaliculos digitales. quibus iunctis inplicetur calx ex oleo subacta, confricenturque inter se coagmenta compressa. ita calx, quae erit haerens in canalibus, durescendo contexteque solidescendo non patietur aquam neque aliam rem per coagmenta transire. cum ergo fuerit hoc ita perstratum, supra nucleus inducatur et virgis caedendo subigatur. supra autem sive ex tessera grandi sive ex spica testacea ⟨pavimenta⟩ struantur fastigiis, quibus est supra scriptum, et cum sic erunt facta, non cito vitiabuntur.
2.1. 1. LEAVING the subject of floors, we must next treat of stucco work. This will be all right if the best lime, taken in lumps, is slaked a good while before it is to be used, so that if any lump has not been burned long enough in the kiln, it will be forced to throw off its heat during the long course of slaking in the water, and will thus be thoroughly burned to the same consistency. When it is taken not thoroughly slaked but fresh, it has little crude bits concealed in it, and so, when applied, it blisters. When such bits complete their slaking after they are on the building, they break up and spoil the smooth polish of the stucco.
2.1. Cum a pavimentorum cura discessum fuerit, tunc de albariis operibus est explicandum. id autem erit recte, si glaebae calcis optimae ante multo tempore, quam opus fuerit, macerabuntur, uti, si qua glaeba parum fuerit in fornace cocta, in maceratione diuturna liquore defervere coacta uno tenore concoquatur. namque cum non penitus macerata sed recens sumitur, cum fuerit inducta habens latentes crudos calculos, pustulas emittit. qui calculi, in opere uno tenore cum permacerantur, dissolvunt et dissipant tectorii politiones.
2.2. 2. But when the proper attention has been paid to the slaking, and greater pains have thus been employed in the preparation for the work, take a hoe, and apply it to the slaked lime in the mortar bed just as you hew wood. If it sticks to the hoe in bits, the lime is not yet tempered; and when the iron is drawn out dry and clean, it will show that the lime is weak and thirsty; but when the lime is rich and properly slaked, it will stick to the tool like glue, proving that it is completely tempered. Then get the scaffolding ready, and proceed to construct the vaultings in the rooms, unless they are to be decorated with flat coffered ceilings.
2.2. Cum autem habita erit ratio macerationis et id curiosius operi praeparatum erit, sumatur ascia et, quemadmodum materia dolatur, sic calx in lacu macerata ascietur. si ad eam offenderint calculi, non erit temperata; cumque siccum et purum ferrum educetur, indicabit eam evanidam et siticulosam; cum vero pinguis fuerit et recte macerata, circa id ferramentum uti glutinum haerens omni ratione probabit se esse temperatam. tunc autem machinis comparatis camerarum dispositiones in conclavibus expediantur, nisi lacunariis ea fuerint ornata.
3.1. 1. WHEN vaulting is required, the procedure should be as follows. Set up horizontal furring strips at intervals of not more than two feet apart, using preferably cypress, as fir is soon spoiled by decay and by age. Arrange these strips so as to form a curve, and make them fast to the joists of the floor above or to the roof, if it is there, by nailing them with many iron nails to ties fixed at intervals. These ties should be made of a kind of wood that neither decay nor time nor dampness can spoil, such as box, juniper, olive, oak, cypress, or any other similar wood except common oak; for this warps, and causes cracks in work in which it is used.
3.1. Cum ergo camerarum postulabitur ratio, sic erit faciundum. asseres directi disponantur inter se ne plus spatium habentes pedes binos, et hi maxime cupressei, quod abiegnei ab carie et ab vetustate celeriter vitiantur. hique asseres, cum ad formam circinationis fuerint distributi, catenis dispositis ad contignationes, sive tecta erunt, crebriter clavis ferreis fixi religentur. eaeque catenae ex ea materia comparentur, cui nec caries nec vetustas nec umor possit nocere, id est e buxo, iunipero, olea, robore, cupresso ceterisque similibus praeter quercum, cum ea se torquendo rimas faciat quibus inest operibus.
3.2. 2. Having arranged the furring strips, take cord made of Spanish broom, and tie Greek reeds, previously pounded flat, to them in the required contour. Immediately above the vaulting spread some mortar made of lime and sand, to check any drops that may fall from the joists or from the roof. If a supply of Greek reed is not to be had, gather slender marsh reeds, and make them up with silk cord into bundles all of the same thickness and adjusted to the proper length, provided that the bundles are not more than two feet long between any two knots. Then tie them with cord to the beams, as above described, and drive wooden pegs into them. Make all the other preparations as above described.
3.2. Asseribus dispositis tum tomice ex sparto hispanico harundines graecae tunsae ad eos, uti forma postulat, religentur. item supra cameram materies ex calce et harena mixta subinde inducatur, ut, si quae stillae ex contignationibus aut tectis ceciderint, sustineantur. sin autem harundinis graecae copia non erit, de paludibus tenues colligantur et mataxae tomice ad iustam longitudinem una crassitudine alligationibus temperentur, dum ne plus inter duos nodos [alligationibus] binos pedes distent, et hae ad asseres, uti supra scriptum est, tomice religentur cultellique lignei in eas configantur. Cetera omnia, uti supra scriptum est, expediantur.
3.3. 3. Having thus set the vaultings in their places and interwoven them, apply the rendering coat to their lower surface; then lay on the sand mortar, and afterwards polish it off with the powdered marble. After the vaultings have been polished, set the impost mouldings directly beneath them. These obviously ought to be made extremely slender and delicate, for when they are large, their weight carries them down, and they cannot support themselves. Gypsum should by no means be used in their composition, but powdered marble should be laid on uniformly, lest gypsum, by setting too quickly should keep the work from drying uniformly. We must also beware of the ancients' scheme for vaultings; for in their mouldings the soffits overhang very heavily, and are dangerous.
3.3. Cameris dispositis et intextis imum caelum earum trullissetur, deinde harena dirigatur, postea autem creta aut marmore poliatur. Cum camerae politae fuerint, sub eas coronae sunt subiciendae, quas maxime tenues et subtiles oportere fieri videbitur; cum enim grandes sunt, pondere deducuntur nec possunt se sustinere. in hisque minime gypsum debet admisceri, sed ex creto marmore uno tenore perduci, uti ne praecipiendo non patiatur uno tenore opus inarescere. etiamque cavendae sunt in cameris †priscorum dispositiones, quod earum planitiae coronarum gravi pondere inpendentes sunt periculosae.
3.4. 4. Some mouldings are flat, others in relief. In rooms where there has to be a fire or a good many lights, they should be flat, so that they can be wiped off more easily. In summer apartments and in exedrae where there is no smoke nor soot to hurt them, they should be made in relief. It is always the case that stucco, in the pride of its dazzling white, gathers smoke not only from its own house but also from others.
3.4. Coronarum autem sunt figurae ⟨aliae purae⟩, aliae caelatae. conclavibus autem, ubi ignis aut plura lumina sunt ponenda, purae fieri debent, ut eo facilius extergeantur; in aestivis et exhedris, ubi minime fumus est nec fuligo potest nocere, ibi caelatae sunt faciendae. semper enim album opus propter superbiam candoris non modo ex propriis sed etiam alienis aedificiis concipit fumum.
3.5. 5. Having finished the mouldings, apply a very rough rendering coat to the walls, and afterwards, when the rendering coat gets pretty dry, spread upon it the layers of sand mortar, exactly adjusted in length to rule and line, in height to the plummet, and at the angles to the square. The stucco will thus present a faultless appearance for paintings. When it gets pretty dry, spread on a second coat and then a third. The better the foundation of sand mortar that is laid on, the stronger and more durable in its solidity will be the stucco.
3.5. Coronis explicatis parietes quam asperrime trullissentur, postea autem supra, trullissatione subarescente, deformentur directiones harenati, uti longitudines ad regulam et ad lineam, altitudines ad perpendiculum, anguli ad normam respondentes exigantur; namque sic emendata tectoriorum in picturis erit species. subarescente iterum et tertio inducatur; ita cum fundatior erit ex harenato directura, eo firmior erit ad vetustatem soliditas tectorii.
3.6. 6. When not less than three coats of sand mortar, besides the rendering coat, have been laid on, then, we must make the mixture for the layers of powdered marble, the mortar being so tempered that when mixed it does not stick to the trowel, but the iron comes out freely and clean from the mortar trough. After this powdered marble has been spread on and gets dry, lay on a medium second coat. When that has been applied and well rubbed down, spread on a finer coat. The walls, being thus rendered solid by three coats of sand mortar and as many of marble, will not possibly be liable to cracks or to any other defect.
3.6. Cum ab harena praeter trullissationem non minus tribus coriis fuerit deformatum, tunc e marmore graneo directiones sunt subigendae, dum ita materies temperetur, uti, cum subigatur, non haereat ad rutrum, sed purum ferrum e mortario liberetur. grandi inducto et inarescente alterum corium mediocre dirigatur; id cum subactum fuerit et bene fricatum, subtilius inducatur. ita cum tribus coriis harenae et item marmoris solidati parietes fuerint, neque rimas, neque aliud vitium in se recipere poterunt, sed et liaculorum subactionibus fundata soliditate marmorisque candore firmo levigata, coloribus cum politionibus inductis nitidos expriment splendores.
3.7. 7. And further, such walls, owing to the solid foundation given by thorough working with polishing instruments, and the smoothness of it, due to the hard and dazzling white marble, will bring out in brilliant splendour the colours which are laid on at the same time with the polishing. These colours, when they are carefully laid on stucco still wet, do not fade but are permanent. This is because the lime, having had its moisture burned out in the kiln, becomes porous and loses its strength, and its dryness makes it take up anything that may come in contact with it. On mixing with the seeds or elements that come from other substances, it forms a solid mass with them and, no matter what the constituent parts may then be, it must, obviously, on becoming dry, possess the qualities which are peculiar to its own nature.
3.7. colores autem, udo tectorio cum diligenter sunt inducti, ideo non remittunt sed sunt perpetuo permanentes, quod calx, in fornacibus excocto liquore facta raritatibus evanida, ieiunitate coacta corripit in se quae res forte contigerunt, mixtionibusque ex aliis potestatibus conlatis seminibus seu principiis una solidescendo, [in quibuscumque membris est formata] cum fit arida, redigitur, uti sui generis proprias videatur habere qualitates.
3.8. 8. Hence, stucco that is properly made does not get rough as time goes on, nor lose its colours when it is wiped off, unless they have been laid on with little care and after it is dry. So, when the stucco on walls is made as described above, it will have strength and brilliancy, and an excellence that will last to a great age. But when only one coat of sand mortar and one of fine marble have been spread on, its thin layer is easily cracked from want of strength, and from its lack of thickness it will not take on the brilliance, due to polishing, which it ought to have.
3.8. Itaque tectoria, quae recte sunt facta, neque vetustatibus fiunt horrida neque, cum extergentur, remittunt colores, nisi si parum diligenter et in arido fuerint inducti. cum ergo ita in parietibus tectoria facta fuerint, uti supra scriptum est, et firmitatem et splendorem et ad vetustatem permanentem virtutem poterunt habere. cum vero unum corium harenae et unum minuti marmoris erit inductum, tenuitas eius minus valendo faciliter rumpitur nec splendorem politionibus propter inbecillitatem crassitudinis proprium obtinebit.
3.9. 9. Just as a silver mirror that is formed of a thin plate reflects indistinctly and with a feeble light, while one that is substantially made can take on a very high polish, and reflects a brilliant and distinct image when one looks therein, so it is with stucco. When the stuff of which it is formed is thin, it not only cracks but also soon fades; when, however, it has a solid foundation of sand mortar and of marble, thickly and compactly applied, it is not only brilliant after being subjected to repeated polishings, but also reflects from its surface a clear image of the beholder.
3.9. Quemadmodum enim speculum argenteum tenui lamella ductum incertas et sine viribus habet remissiones splendoris, quod autem e solida temperatura fuerit factum, recipiens in se firmis viribus politionem fulgentes in aspectu certasque considerantibus imagines reddet, sic tectoria, quae ex tenui sunt ducta materia, non modo sunt rimosa, sed etiam celeriter evanescunt, quae autem fundata harenationis et marmoris soliditate sunt crassitudine spissa, cum sunt politionibus crebris subacta, non modo sunt nitentia, sed etiam imagines expressas aspicientibus ex eo opere remittunt.
3.10. 10. The Greek stucco-workers not only employ these methods to make their works durable, but also construct a mortar trough, mix the lime and sand in it, bring on a gang of men, and beat the stuff with wooden beetles, and do not use it until it has been thus vigorously worked. Hence, some cut slabs out of old walls and use them as panels, and the stucco of such panels and “reflectors” has projecting bevelled edges all round it.
3.10. Graecorum vero tectores non solum his rationibus utendo faciunt opera firma, sed etiam mortario conlocato, calce et harena ibi confusa, decuria hominum inducta ligneis vectibus pisant materiam, et ita ad certamen subacta tunc utuntur. itaque veteribus parietibus nonnulli crustas excidentes pro abacis utuntur, ipsaque tectoria abacorum et speculorum divisionibus circa se prominentes habent expressiones.