---
title: "On Architecture · De architectura"
author: "Vitruvius"
translator: "Morris Hicky Morgan"
languages: [la, en]
shelf: "Classical Latin"
section: 2 of 22
url: https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/2/
cite: "Vitruvius, tr. Morris Hicky Morgan, On Architecture · De architectura, section 2. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/2/"
---

# On Architecture · De architectura

*Vitruvius, tr. Morris Hicky Morgan*

The only architectural treatise to survive from antiquity: firmness, usefulness and beauty, temples and the proportions of the human body, water, sundials and machines.

> Latin: ed. Fritz Krohn, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-latinLit, phi1056.phi001, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: Morris Hicky Morgan, from the Perseus Digital Library (phi1056.phi001.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 2. Book I · chapters 4–7

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/2/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/2/#p-N

[¶0] 4.4. 4. We may also recognize the truth of this from the fact that in summer the heat makes everybody weak, not only in unhealthy but even in healthy places, and that in winter even the most unhealthy districts are much healthier because they are given a solidity by the cooling off. Similarly, persons removed from cold countries to hot cannot endure it but waste away; whereas those who pass from hot places to the cold regions of the north, not only do not suffer in health from the change of residence but even gain by it.

> Latin: 4.4. Licet etiam considerare haec ita esse ex eo, quod aestate non solum in pestilentibus locis sed etiam in salubribus omnia corpora calore fiant inbecilla, et per hiemem etiam quae pestilentissimae sint regiones efficiantur salubres, ideo quod a refrigerationibus solidantur. non minus etiam quae ab frigidis regionibus corpora traducuntur in calidas, non possunt durare sed dissolvuntur; quae autem ex calidis locis sub septentrionum regiones frigidas, non modo non laborant inmutatione loci valetudinibus sed etiam confirmantur.

[¶1] 4.5. 5. It appears, then, that in founding towns we must beware of districts from which hot winds can spread abroad over the inhabitants. For while all bodies are composed of the four elements (in Greek στοιχεῖα), that is, of heat, moisture, the earthy, and air, yet there are mixtures according to natural temperament which make up the natures of all the different animals of the world, each after its kind.

> Latin: 4.5. Quare cavendum esse videtur in moenibus conlocandis ab îs regionibus, quae caloribus flatus ad corpora hominum possunt spargere. namque ⟨e⟩ principiis, quae Graeci στοιχεῖα appellant, ut omnia, corpora sunt composita, id est e calore et umore, terreno et aere, et ita mixtionibus naturali temperatura figurantur omnium animalium in mundo generatim qualitates.

[¶2] 4.6. 6. Therefore, if one of these elements, heat, becomes predominant in any body whatsoever, it destroys and dissolves all the others with its violence. This defect may be due to violent heat from certain quarters of the sky, pouring into the open pores in too great proportion to admit of a mixture suited to the natural temperament of the body in question. Again, if too much moisture enters the channels of a body, and thus introduces disproportion, the other elements, adulterated by the liquid, are impaired, and the virtues of the mixture dissolved. This defect, in turn, may arise from the cooling properties of moist winds and breezes blowing upon the body. In the same way, increase or diminution of the proportion of air or of the earthy which is natural to the body may enfeeble the other elements; the predominance of the earthy being due to overmuch food, that of air to a heavy atmosphere.

> Latin: 4.6. Ergo in quibus⟨vis⟩ corporibus cum exsuperat e principiis calor, tunc interficit dissolvitque cetera fervore. haec autem vitia efficit fervidum ab certis partibus caelum, cum insidit in apertas venas plus quam patitur e mixtionibus naturali temperatura corpus. item si umor occupavit corporum venas inparesque eas fecit, cetera principia liquido corrupta diluuntur, et dissolvuntur compositionibus virtutes. item haec e refrigerationibus umoris ventorum et aurarum infunduntur vitia corporibus. non minus aeris etiamque terreni in corpore naturalis compositio augendo aut minuendo infirmat cetera, principia terrena cibi plenitate, aer gravitate caeli.

[¶3] 4.7. 7. If one wishes a more accurate understanding of all this, he need only consider and observe the natures of birds, fishes, and land animals, and he will thus come to reflect upon distinctions of temperament. One form of mixture is proper to birds, another to fishes, and a far different form to land animals. Winged creatures have less of the earthy, less moisture, heat in moderation, air in large amount. Being made up, therefore, of the lighter elements, they can more readily soar away into the air. Fish, with their aquatic nature, being moderately supplied with heat and made up in great part of air and the earthy, with as little of moisture as possible, can more easily exist in moisture for the very reason that they have less of it than of the other elements in their bodies; and so, when they are drawn to land, they leave life and water at the same moment. Similarly, the land animals, being moderately supplied with the elements of air and heat, and having less of the earthy and a great deal of moisture, cannot long continue alive in the water, because their portion of moisture is already abundant.

> Latin: 4.7. Sed si qui voluerit diligentius haec sensu percipere, animadvertat attendatque naturas avium et piscium et terrestrium animalium, et ita considerabit discrimina temperaturae. aliam enim mixtionem habet genus avium, aliam piscium, longe aliter terrestrium natura. volucres minus habent terreni, minus umoris, caloris temperate, aeris multum; igitur levioribus principiis compositae facilius in aeris impetum nituntur. aquatiles autem piscium naturae, quod temperatae sunt a calido plurimumque ex aeris et terreni ⟨principiis⟩ sunt compositae, sed umoris habent oppido quam paulum, quo minus habent e principiis umoris in corpore, facilius in umore perdurant; itaque cum ad terram perducuntur, animam cum aqua relinquunt. item terrestria, quod e principiis ab aere caloreque sunt temperata minusque habent terreni plurimumque umoris, quod abundant umidae partes, non diu possunt in aqua vitam tueri.

[¶4] 4.8. 8. Therefore, if all this is as we have explained, our reason showing us that the bodies of animals are made up of the elements, and these bodies, as we believe, giving way and breaking up as a result of excess or deficiency in this or that element, we cannot but believe that we must take great care to select a very temperate climate for the site of our city, since healthfulness is, as we have said, the first requisite.

> Latin: 4.8. Ergo si haec ita videntur, quemadmodum proposuimus, et e principiis animalium corpora composita sensu percipimus et e superationibus aut defectionibus ea laborare dissolvique iudicamus, non dubitamus, quin diligentius quaeri oporteat, uti temperatissimas caeli regiones eligamus, cum quaerenda fuerit in moenium conlocationibus salubritas.

[¶5] 4.9. 9. I cannot too strongly insist upon the need of a return to the method of old times. Our ancestors, when about to build a town or an army post, sacrificed some of the cattle that were wont to feed on the site proposed and examined their livers. If the livers of the first victims were dark-coloured or abnormal, they sacrificed others, to see whether the fault was due to disease or their food. They never began to build defensive works in a place until after they had made many such trials and satisfied themselves that good water and food had made the liver sound and firm. If they continued to find it abnormal, they argued from this that the food and water supply found in such a place would be just as unhealthy for man, and so they moved away and changed to another neighbourhood, healthfulness being their chief object.

> Latin: 4.9. Itaque etiam atque etiam veterem revocandam censeo rationem. maiores enim pecoribus immolatis, quae pascebantur in îs locis, quibus aut oppida aut castra stativa constituebantur, inspiciebant iocinera, et si erant livida et vitiosa primo, alia immolabant dubitantes, utrum morbo an pabuli vitio laesa essent. cum pluribus experti erant et probaverant integram et solidam naturam iocinerum ex aqua et pabulo, ibi constituebant munitiones; si autem vitiosa inveniebant, iudicio transferebant item humanis corporibus pestilentem futuram nascentem in his locis aquae cibique copiam, et ita transmigrabant et mutabant regiones quaerentes omnibus rebus salubritatem.

[¶6] 4.10. 10. That pasturage and food may indicate the healthful qualities of a site is a fact which can be observed and investigated in the case of certain pastures in Crete, on each side of the river Pothereus, which separates the two Cretan states of Gnosus and Gortyna. There are cattle at pasture on the right and left banks of that river, but while the cattle that feed near Gnosus have the usual spleen, those on the other side near Gortyna have no perceptible spleen. On investigating the subject, physicians discovered on this side a kind of herb which the cattle chew and thus make their spleen small. The herb is therefore gathered and used as a medicine for the cure of splenetic people. The Cretans call it ἄσπληνον. From food and water, then, we may learn whether sites are naturally unhealthy or healthy.

> Latin: 4.10. Hoc autem fieri, uti pabulo ciboque salubres proprietates terrae videantur, licet animadvertere et cognoscere ex agris Cretensium, qui sunt circa Pothereum flumen, quod est Cretae inter duas civitates Gnoson et Gortynam. dextra enim et sinistra eius fluminis pascuntur pecora; sed ex his quae pascuntur proxime Gnoson si … quae autem ex altera parte proxime Gortynam, non habent apparentem splenem. unde etiam medici quaerentes de ea re invenerunt in his locis herbam, quam pecora rodendo inminuerunt lienes. ita eam herbam colligendo curant lienosos hoc medicamento, quod etiam Cretenses ἄσπληνον vocitant. ex eo licet scire cibo atque aqua proprietates locorum naturaliter pestilentes aut salubres esse.

[¶7] 4.11. 11. If the walled town is built among the marshes themselves, provided they are by the sea, with a northern or north-eastern exposure, and are above the level of the seashore, the site will be reasonable enough. For ditches can be dug to let out the water to the shore, and also in times of storms the sea swells and comes backing up into the marshes, where its bitter blend prevents the reproductions of the usual marsh creatures, while any that swim down from the higher levels to the shore are killed at once by the saltness to which they are unused. An instance of this may be found in the Gallic marshes surrounding Altino, Ravenna, Aquileia, and other towns in places of the kind, close by marshes. They are marvellously healthy, for the reasons which I have given.

> Latin: 4.11. Item si in paludibus moenia constituta erunt, quae paludes secundum mare fuerint, spectabuntque ad septentrionem aut inter septentrionem et orientem, eaeque paludes excelsiores fuerint quam litus marinum, ratione videbuntur esse constituta. fossis enim ductis fit aquae exitus ad litus, et mare tempestatibus actum in paludes redundantia motionibus concitata marisque mixtionibus non patitur bestiarum palustrium genera ibi nasci, quaeque de superioribus locis natando proxime litus perveniunt, inconsueta salsitudine necantur. exemplar autem huius rei Gallicae paludes possunt esse, quae circum⟨cingunt⟩ Altinum, Ravennam, Aquileiam, aliaque quae in eiusmodi locis municipia sunt proxima paludibus, quod his rationibus habent incredibilem salubritatem.

[¶8] 4.12. 12. But marshes that are stagnant and have no outlets either by rivers or ditches, like the Pomptine marshes, merely putrefy as they stand, emitting heavy, unhealthy vapours. A case of a town built in such a spot was Old Salpia in Apulia, founded by Diomede on his way back from Troy, or, according to some writers, by Elpias of Rhodes. Year after year there was sickness, until finally the suffering inhabitants came with a public petition to Marcus Hostilius and got him to agree to seek and find them a proper place to which to remove their city. Without delay he made the most skilful investigations, and at once purchased an estate near the sea in a healthy place, and asked the Senate and Roman people for permission to remove the town. He constructed the walls and laid out the house lots, granting one to each citizen for a mere trifle. This done, he cut an opening from a lake into the sea, and thus made of the lake a harbour for the town. The result is that now the people of Salpia live on a healthy site and at a distance of only four miles from the old town.

> Latin: 4.12. Quibus autem insidentes sunt paludes et non habent exitus profluentes neque per flumina neque per fossas, uti Pomptinae, stando putescunt et umores graves et pestilentes in îs locis emittunt. Item in Apulia oppidum Salpia vetus, quod Diomedes ab Troia rediens constituit sive, quemadmodum nonnulli scripserunt, Elpias Rhodius, in eiusmodi locis fuerat conlocatum, ex quo incolae quotannis aegrotando laborantes aliquando pervenerunt ad M. Hostilium ab eoque publice petentes impetraverunt, ut is idoneum locum ad moenia transferenda conquireret eligeretque. tunc is moratus non est, sed statim rationibus doctissime quaesitis secundum mare mercatus est possessionem loco salubri ab senatuque populoque Romano petît, ut liceret transferre oppidum, constituitque moenia et areas divisit nummoque sestertio singulis municipibus mancipio dedit. his confectis lacum aperuit in mare et portum e lacu municipio perfecit. itaque nunc Salpini quattuor milia passus progressi ab oppido veteri habitant in salubri loco.

[¶9] 5.1. 1. AFTER insuring on these principles the healthfulness of the future city, and selecting a neighbourhood that can supply plenty of food stuffs to maintain the community, with good roads or else convenient rivers or seaports affording easy means of transport to the city, the next thing to do is to lay the foundations for the towers and walls. Dig down to solid bottom, if it can be found, and lay them therein, going as deep as the magnitude of the proposed work seems to require. They should be much thicker than the part of the walls that will appear above ground, and their structure should be as solid as it can possibly be laid.

> Latin: 5.1. Cum ergo his rationibus [erit] salubritatis [moenium conlocandorum explicatio] regiones[que] electae fuerint fructibus ad alendam civitatem copiosae, et viarum munitiones aut opportunitates fluminum seu per portus marinae subvectionis habuerit ad moenia comportationes expeditas, tunc turrium murorumque fundamenta sic sunt facienda, uti fodiantur, si queat inveniri, ad solidum et in solido, quantum ex amplitudine operis pro ratione videatur, crassitudine ampliore quam parietum, qui supra terram sunt futuri, et ea impleantur quam solidissima structura.

[¶10] 5.2. 2. The towers must be projected beyond the line of wall, so that an enemy wishing to approach the wall to carry it by assault may be exposed to the fire of missiles on his open flank from the towers on his right and left. Special pains should be taken that there be no easy avenue by which to storm the wall. The roads should be encompassed at steep points, and planned so as to approach the gates, not in a straight line, but from the right to the left; for as a result of this, the right hand side of the assailants, unprotected by their shields, will be next the wall. Towns should be laid out not as an exact square nor with salient angles, but in circular form, to give a view of the enemy from many points. Defence is difficult where there are salient angles, because the angle protects the enemy rather than the inhabitants.

> Latin: 5.2. Item turres sunt proiciendae in exteriorem partem, uti, cum ad murum hostis impetu velit adpropinquare, a turribus dextra ac sinistra lateribus apertis telis vulnerentur. curandumque maxime videtur, ut non facilis aditus sit ad oppugnandum murum, sed ita circumdandum ad loca praecipitia et excogitandum, uti portarum itinera non sint directa sed scaeva. namque cum ita factum fuerit, tum dextrum latus accedentibus, quod scuto non erit tectum, proximum erit muro. conlocanda autem oppida sunt non quadrata nec procurrentibus angulis sed circinationibus, uti hostis ex pluribus locis conspiciatur. in quibus enim anguli procurrunt, difficiliter defenditur, quod angulus magis hostem tuetur quam civem.

[¶11] 5.3. 3. The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, be such that armed men meeting on top of it may pass one another without interference. In the thickness there should be set a very close succession of ties made of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to give it lasting endurance. For that is a material which neither decay, nor the weather, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the earth or set in the water it keeps sound and useful forever. And so not only city walls but substructures in general and all walls that require a thickness like that of a city wall, will be long in falling to decay if tied in this manner.

> Latin: 5.3. Crassitudinem autem muri ita faciendam censeo, uti armati homines supra obviam venientes alius alium sine inpeditione praeterire possint, dum in crassitudine perpetuae taleae oleagineae ustilatae quam creberrime instruantur, uti utraeque muri frontes inter se, quemadmodum fibulis, his taleis conligatae aeternam habeant firmitatem; namque ei materiae nec caries nec tempestates nec vetustas potest nocere, sed ea et in terra obruta et in aqua conlocata permanet sine vitiis utilis sempiterno. itaque non solum in muro sed etiam in substructionibus quique parietes murali crassitudine erunt faciundi, hac ratione religati non cito vitiabuntur.

[¶12] 5.4. 4. The towers should be set at intervals of not more than a bowshot apart, so that in case of an assault upon any one of them, the enemy may be repulsed with scorpiones and other means of hurling missiles from the towers to the right and left. Opposite the inner side of every tower the wall should be interrupted for a space the width of the tower, and have only a wooden flooring across, leading to the interior of the tower but not firmly nailed. This is to be cut away by the defenders in case the enemy gets possession of any portion of the wall; and if the work is quickly done, the enemy will not be able to make his way to the other towers and the rest of the wall unless he is ready to face a fall.

> Latin: 5.4. Intervalla autem turrium ita sunt facienda, ut ne longius sit alia ab alia sagittae missionis, uti, si qua oppugnetur, tum a turribus, quae erunt dextra sinistra, scorpionibus reliquisque telorum missionibus hostes reiciantur. etiamque contra interiores ⟨partes⟩ turrium dividendus est murus intervallis tam magnis, quam erunt turres, ut itinera sint interioribus partibus turrium contignata, neque ea ferro fixa; hostis enim si quam partem muri occupaverit, qui repugnabunt rescindent et, si celeriter administraverint, non patientur reliquas partes turrium murique hostem penetrare, nisi se voluerit praecipitare.

[¶13] 5.5. 5. The towers themselves must be either round or polygonal. Square towers are sooner shattered by military engines, for the battering rams pound their angles to pieces; but in the case of round towers they can do no harm, being engaged, as it were, in driving wedges to their centre. The system of fortification by wall and towers may be made safest by the addition of earthen ramparts, for neither rams, nor mining, nor other engineering devices can do them any harm.

> Latin: 5.5. Turres itaque rotundae aut polygonoe sunt faciendae; quadratas enim machinae celerius dissipant, quod angulos arietes tundendo frangunt, in rotundationibus autem uti cuneos ad centrum adigendo laedere non possunt. item munitiones muri turriumque aggeribus coniunctae maxime sunt tutiores, quod neque arietes neque suffossiones neque machinae ceterae eis valent nocere.

[¶14] 5.6. 6. The rampart form of defence, however, is not required in all places, but only where outside the wall there is high ground from which an assault on the fortifications may be made over a level space lying between. In places of this kind we must first make very wide, deep ditches; next sink foundations for a wall in the bed of the ditch and build them thick enough to support an earth-work with ease.

> Latin: 5.6. Sed non in omnibus locis est aggeris ratio facienda, nisi quibus extra murum ex alto loco plano pede accessus fuerit ad moenia oppugnanda. itaque in eiusmodi locis primum fossae sunt faciendae latitudinibus et altitudinibus quam amplissimis, deinde fundamentum muri deprimendum est infra alveum fossae et id extruendum est ea crassitudine, ut opus terrenum facile sustineatur.

[¶15] 5.7. 7. Then within this substructure lay a second foundation, far enough inside the first to leave ample room for cohorts in line of battle to take position on the broad top of the rampart for its defence. Having laid these two foundations at this distance from one another, build cross walls between them, uniting the outer and inner foundation, in a comb-like arrangement, set like the teeth of a saw. With this form of construction, the enormous burden of earth will be distributed into small bodies, and will not lie with all its weight in one crushing mass so as to thrust out the substructures.

> Latin: 5.7. Item interiore parte substructionis fundamentum distans ab exteriore introrsus amplo spatio, ita uti cohortes possint quemadmodum in acie instructae ad defendendum supra latitudinem aggeris consistere. cum autem fundamenta ita distantia inter se fuerint constituta, tunc inter ea alia transversa, coniuncta exteriori et interiori fundamento, pectinatim disposita [quemadmodum serrae dentes solent esse] conlocentur; cum enim sic erit factum, tunc ita oneris terreni magnitudo distributa in parvas partes neque universa pondere premens ⟨non⟩ poterit ulla ratione extrudere muri substructiones.

[¶16] 5.8. 8. With regard to the material of which the actual wall should be constructed or finished, there can be no definite prescription, because we cannot obtain in all places the supplies that we desire. Dimension stone, flint, rubble, burnt or unburnt brick,—use them as you find them. For it is not every neighbourhood or particular locality that can have a wall built of burnt brick like that at Babylon, where there was plenty of asphalt to take the place of lime and sand, and yet possibly each may be provided with materials of equal usefulness so that out of them a faultless wall may be built to last forever.

> Latin: 5.8. De ipso autem muro, e qua materia struatur aut perficiatur, ideo non est praefiniendum, quod in omnibus locis, quas optamus copias, eas non possumus habere. sed ubi sunt saxa quadrata sive silex seu caementum aut coctus later sive crudus, his erit utendum. non enim, uti Babylone abundantes liquido bitumine pro calce et harena ex cocto latere factum habent murum, sic item possunt omnes regiones seu locorum proprietates habere tantas eiusdem generis utilitates, uti ex his comparationibus ad aeternitatem perfectus habeatur sine vitio murus.

[¶17] 6.1. 1. THE town being fortified, the next step is the apportionment of house lots within the wall and the laying out of streets and alleys with regard to climatic conditions. They will be properly laid out if foresight is employed to exclude the winds from the alleys. Cold winds are disagreeable, hot winds enervating, moist winds unhealthy. We must, therefore, avoid mistakes in this matter and beware of the common experience of many communities. For example, Mytilene in the island of Lesbos is a town built with magnificence and good taste, but its position shows a lack of foresight. In that community when the wind is south, the people fall ill; when it is northwest, it sets them coughing; with a north wind they do indeed recover but cannot stand about in the alleys and streets, owing to the severe cold.

> Latin: 6.1. Moenibus circumdatis sequuntur intra murum arearum divisiones platearumque et angiportûm ad caeli regionem directiones. dirigentur haec autem recte, si exclusi erunt ex angiportis venti prudenter. qui si frigidi sunt, laedunt; si calidi, vitiant; si umidi, nocent. quare vitandum videtur hoc vitium et avertendum, ne fiat quod in multis civitatibus usu solet venire. quemadmodum in insula Lesbo oppidum Mytilenae magnificenter est aedificatum et eleganter, sed positum non prudenter. in qua civitate auster cum flat, homines aegrotant; cum corus, tussiunt; cum septentrio, restituuntur in salubritatem, sed in angiportis et plateis non possunt consistere propter vehementiam frigoris.

[¶18] 6.2. 2. Wind is a flowing wave of air, moving hither and thither indefinitely. It is produced when heat meets moisture, the rush of heat generating a mighty current of air. That this is the fact we may learn from bronze eolipiles, and thus by means of a scientific invention discover a divine truth lurking in the laws of the heavens. Eolipiles are hollow bronze balls, with a very small opening through which water is poured into them. Set before a fire, not a breath issues from them before they get warm; but as soon as they begin to boil, out comes a strong blast due to the fire. Thus from this slight and very short experiment we may understand and judge of the mighty and wonderful laws of the heavens and the nature of winds.

> Latin: 6.2. Ventus autem est aeris fluens unda cum certa motus redundantia. nascitur, cum fervor offendit umorem et impetus spiritus factionis exprimit vim flatus. id autem verum esse ex aeolis aereis licet aspicere et de latentibus caeli rationibus artificiosis rerum inventionibus divinitatis exprimere veritatem. fiunt enim aeoli pilae aereae cavae,— hae habent punctum angustissimum—quae aqua infunduntur conlocanturque ad ignem; et antequam calescant, non habent ullum spiritum, simul autem ut fervere coeperint, efficiunt ad ignem vehementem flatum. ita scire et iudicare licet e parvo brevissimoque spectaculo de magnis et inmanibus caeli ventorumque naturae rationibus.

[¶19] 6.3. 3. By shutting out the winds from our dwellings, therefore, we shall not only make the place healthful for people who are well, but also in the case of diseases due perhaps to unfavourable situations elsewhere, the patients, who in other healthy places might be cured by a different form of treatment, will here be more quickly cured by the mildness that comes from the shutting out of the winds. The diseases which are hard to cure in neighbourhoods such as those to which I have referred above are catarrh, hoarseness, coughs, pleurisy, consumption, spitting of blood, and all others that are cured not by lowering the system but by building it up. They are hard to cure, first, because they are originally due to chills; secondly, because the patient's system being already exhausted by disease, the air there, which is in constant agitation owing to winds and therefore deteriorated, takes all the sap of life out of their diseased bodies and leaves them more meagre every day. On the other hand, a mild, thick air, without draughts and not constantly blowing back and forth, builds up their frames by its unwavering steadiness, and so strengthens and restores people who are afflicted with these diseases.

> Latin: 6.3. ⟨Venti autem si ex habitationibus⟩ exclusi fuerint, non solum efficient corporibus valentibus locum salubrem, sed etiam si qui morbi ex aliis vitiis forte nascentur, qui in ceteris ⟨minus⟩ salubribus locis habent curationes medicinae contrariae, in his propter exclusiones ventorum temperatura expeditius curabuntur. vitia autem sunt, quae difficulter curantur in regionibus, quae sunt supra scriptae, haec: gravitudo arteriace, tussis, pleuritis, pthisis, sanguinis eiectio et cetera, quae non detractionibus sed adiectionibus curantur. haec ideo difficulter medicantur, primum quod ex frigoribus concipiuntur, deinde quod defatigatis morbo viribus eorum aer agitatus est ⟨molestus; namque ubi⟩ ventorum agitationibus extenuatur, a vitiosis corporibus detrahit sucum et efficit ea exiliora. contra vero lenis et crassus aer, qui perflatus non habet neque crebras redundantias, propter inmotam stabilitatem adiciendo ad membra eorum alit eos et reficit, qui in his sunt inpliciti morbis.

[¶20] 6.4. 4. Some have held that there are only four winds: Solanus from due east; Auster from the south; Favonius from due west; Septentrio from the north. But more careful investigators tell us that there are eight. Chief among such was Andronicus of Cyrrhus who in proof built the marble octagonal tower in Athens. On the several sides of the octagon he executed reliefs representing the several winds, each facing the point from which it blows; and on top of the tower he set a conical shaped piece of marble and on this a bronze Triton with a rod outstretched in its right hand. It was so contrived as to go round with the wind, always stopping to face the breeze and holding its rod as a pointer directly over the representation of the wind that was blowing.

> Latin: 6.4. Nonnullis placuit esse ventos quattuor: ab oriente aequinoctiali solanum, a meridie austrum, ab occidente aequinoctiali favonium, ab septentrionali septentrionem. sed qui diligentius perquisierunt, tradiderunt eos esse octo, maxime quidem Andronicus Cyrrestes, qui etiam exemplum conlocavit Athenis turrem marmoream octagonon et in singulis lateribus octagoni singulorum ventorum imagines excalptas contra suos cuiusque flatus designavit, supraque eam turrim metam marmoream perfecit et insuper Tritonem aereum conlocavit dextra manu virgam porrigentem, et ita est machinatus, uti vento circumageretur et semper contra flatum consisteret supraque imaginem flantis venti indicem virgam teneret.

[¶21] 6.5. 5. Thus Eurus is placed to the southeast between Solanus and Auster: Africus to the southwest between Auster and Favonius; Caurus, or, as many call it, Corus, between Favonius and Septentrio; and Aquilo between Septentrio and Solanus. Such, then, appears to have been his device, including the numbers and names of the wind and indicating the directions from which particular winds blow. These facts being thus determined, to find the directions and quarters of the winds your method of procedure should be as follows.

> Latin: 6.5. Itaque sunt conlocati inter solanum et austrum ab oriente hiberno eurus, inter austrum et favonium ab occidente hiberno africus, inter favonium et septentrionem caurus, quem plures vocant corum, inter septentrionem et solanum aquilo. hoc modo videtur esse expressum, uti pateat numerus et nomina et partes, unde flatus certi ventorum spirent. quod cum ita exploratum habeatur, ut inveniantur regiones et ortus eorum, sic erit ratiocinandum.

[¶22] 6.6. 6. In the middle of the city place a marble amussium, laying it true by the level, or else let the spot be made so true by means of rule and level that no amussium is necessary. In the very centre of that spot set up a bronze gnomon or “shadow tracker” (in Greek σκιαθήρας). At about the fifth hour in the morning, take the end of the shadow cast by this gnomon, and mark it with a point. Then, opening your compasses to this point which marks the length of the gnomon's shadow, describe a circle from the centre. In the afternoon watch the shadow of your gnomon as it lengthens, and when it once more touches the circumference of this circle and the shadow in the afternoon is equal in length to that of the morning, mark it with a point.

> Latin: 6.6. Conlocetur ad libellam marmoreum amusium mediis moenibus, aut locus ita expoliatur ad regulam et libellam, ut amusium non desideretur, supraque eius loci centrum medium conlocetur aeneus gnomon, [indagator umbrae] qui graece σκιαθήρας dicitur. huius antemeridiana circiter hora quinta sumenda est extrema gnomonis umbra et puncto signanda, deinde circino diducto ad punctum, quod est gnomonis umbrae longitudinis signum, ex eoque a centro circumagenda linea rotundationis. itemque observanda postmeridiana istius gnomonis crescens umbra, et cum tetigerit circinationis lineam et fecerit parem antemeridianae umbrae postmeridianam, signanda puncto.

[¶23] 6.7. 7. From these two points describe with your compasses intersecting arcs, and through their intersection and the centre let a line be drawn to the circumference of the circle to give us the quarters of south and north. Then, using a sixteenth part of the entire circumference of the circle as a diameter, describe a circle with its centre on the line to the south, at the point where it crosses the circumference, and put points to the right and left on the circumference on the south side, repeating the process on the north side. From the four points thus obtained draw lines intersecting the centre from one side of the circumference to the other. Thus we shall have an eighth part of the circumference set out for Auster and another for Septentrio. The rest of the entire circumference is then to be divided into three equal parts on each side, and thus we have designed a figure equally apportioned among the eight winds. Then let the directions of your streets and alleys be laid down on the lines of division between the quarters of two winds.

> Latin: 6.7. Ex his duobus signis circino decusatim describendum, et per decusationem et medium centrum linea perducenda ad extremum, ut habeatur meridiana et septentrionalis regio. tum postea sumenda est sexta decima pars circinationis lineae totius rotundationis, centrumque conlocandum in meridiana linea, qua tangit circinationem, et signandum dextra ac sinistra in circinatione et meridiana et septentrionali parte. tunc ex signis his quattuor per centrum medium decusatim lineae ab extremis ad extremas circinationes perducendae. ita austri et septentrionis habebitur octavae partis designatio. reliquae partes dextra ac sinistra tres et tres aequales his distribuendae sunt, in tota rotundatione ut aequales divisiones octo ventorum designatae sint in descriptione. tum per angulos inter duas ventorum regiones et platearum et angiportorum videntur deberi dirigi descriptiones.

[¶24] 6.8. 8. On this principle of arrangement the disagreeable force of the winds will be shut out from dwellings and lines of houses. For if the streets run full in the face of the winds, their constant blasts rushing in from the open country, and then confined by narrow alleys, will sweep through them with great violence. The lines of houses must therefore be directed away from the quarters from which the winds blow, so that as they come in they may strike against the angles of the blocks and their force thus be broken and dispersed.

> Latin: 6.8. His enim rationibus et ea divisione exclusa erit ex habitationibus et vicis ventorum vis molesta. cum enim plateae contra directos ventos erunt conformatae, ex aperto caeli spatio impetus ac flatus frequens conclusus in faucibus angiportorum vehementioribus viribus pervagabitur. quas ob res convertendae sunt ab regionibus ventorum directiones vicorum, uti advenientes ad angulos insularum frangantur repulsique dissipentur.

[¶25] 6.9. 9. Those who know names for very many winds will perhaps be surprised at our setting forth that there are only eight. Remembering, however, that Eratosthenes of Cyrene, employing mathematical theories and geometrical methods, discovered from the course of the sun, the shadows cast by an equinoctial gnomon, and the inclination of the heaven that the circumference of the earth is two hundred and fifty-two thousand stadia, that is, thirty-one million five hundred thousand paces, and observing that an eighth part of this, occupied by a wind, is three million nine hundred and thirty-seven thousand five hundred paces, they should not be surprised to find that a single wind, ranging over so wide a field, is subject to shifts this way and that, leading to a variety of breezes.

> Latin: 6.9. Fortasse mirabuntur î, qui multa ventorum nomina noverunt, quod a nobis expositi sunt tantum octo esse venti. si autem animadverterint orbis terrae circumitionem per solis cursum et umbras gnomonis aequinoctialis ex inclinatione caeli ab Eratosthene Cyrenaeo rationibus mathematicis et geometricis methodis esse inventam ducentorum quinquaginta duûm milium stadiûm, quae fiunt passus trecenties et decies quinquies centena milia, huius autem octava pars, quam ventus tenere videtur, est triciens nongenta triginta septem milia et passus quingenti, non debebunt mirari, si in tam magno spatio unus ventus vagando inclinationibus et recessionibus varietates mutatione flatus faciat.

[¶26] 6.10. 10. So we often have Leuconotus and Altanus blowing respectively to the right and left of Auster; Libonotus and Subvesperus to the right and left of Africus; Argestes, and at certain periods the Etesiae, on either side of Favonius; Circias and Corus on the sides of Caurus; Thracias and Gallicus on either side of Septentrio; Supernas and Caecias to the right and left of Aquilo; Carbas, and at a certain period the Ornithiae, on either side of Solanus; while Eurocircias and Volturnus blow on the flanks of Eurus which is between them. There are also many other names for winds derived from localities or from the squalls which sweep from rivers or down mountains.

> Latin: 6.10. Itaque dextra et sinistra austrum leuconotus et altanus flare solet, ⟨circa⟩ africum libonotus et subvesperus, circa favonium argestes et certis temporibus etesiae, ad latera cauri circius et corus, circa septentrionem thracias et gallicus, dextra ac sinistra aquilonem supernas et caecias, circa solanum carbas et certo tempore ornithiae, euri vero medias partes tenentis in extremis euricircias et volturnus. sunt autem et alia plura nomina flatusque ventorum e locis aut fluminibus aut montium procellis tracta.

[¶27] 6.11. 11. Then, too, there are the breezes of early morning; for the sun on emerging from beneath the earth strikes humid air as he returns, and as he goes climbing up the sky he spreads it out before him, extracting breezes from the vapour that was there before the dawn. Those that still blow on after sunrise are classed with Eurus, and hence appears to come the Greek name εὖρος as the child of the breezes, and the word for “to-morrow,” αὔριον, named from the early morning breezes. Some people do indeed say that Eratosthenes could not have inferred the true measure of the earth. Whether true or untrue, it cannot affect the truth of what I have written on the fixing of the quarters from which the different winds blow.

> Latin: 6.11. Praeterea aurae matutinae, qua sol, cum emergit, de subterranea parte versando pulsat aeris umorem et [impetu] scandendo praeurens exprimit aurarum antelucano impetu flatus. qui cum exorto sole permanserunt, euri venti tenent partes, et ea re, quod ex auris procreatur, ab Graecis εὖρος videtur esse appellatus, crastinusque dies propter auras matutinas αὔριον fertur esse vocitatus. sunt autem nonnulli, qui negant Eratosthenem potuisse veram mensuram orbis terrae colligere. quae sive est certa sive non vera, non potest nostra scriptura non veras habere terminationes regionum, unde spiritus ventorum oriuntur.

[¶28] 6.12. 12. If he was wrong, the only result will be that the individual winds may blow, not with the scope expected from his measurement, but with powers either more or less widely extended. For the readier understanding of these topics, since I have treated them with brevity, it has seemed best to me to give two figures, or, as the Greeks say, σχήματα, at the end of this book: one designed to show the precise quarters from which the winds arise; the other, how by turning the directions of the rows of houses and the streets away from their full force, we may avoid unhealthy blasts. Let A be the centre of a plane surface, and B the point to which the shadow of the gnomon reaches in the morning. Taking A as the centre, open the compasses to the point B, which marks the shadow, and describe a circle. Put the gnomon back where it was before and wait for the shadow to lessen and grow again until in the afternoon it is equal to its length in the morning, touching the circumference at the point C. Then from the points B and C describe with the compasses two arcs intersecting at D. Next draw a line from the point of intersection D through the centre of the circle to the circumference and call it E F. This line will show where the south and north lie.

> Latin: 6.12. Ergo si ita est, tantum erit, uti non certam mensurae rationem sed aut maiores impetus aut minores habeant singuli venti. Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter exposita, ut facilius intellegatur, visum est mihi in extremo volumine formas sive, uti Graeci dicunt, σχήματα duo explicare, unum ita deformatum, ut appareat, unde certi ventorum spiritus oriantur, alterum, quemadmodum ab impetu eorum aversis directionibus vicorum et platearum evitentur nocentes flatus. erit autem in exaequata planitie centrum, ubi est littera A, gnomonis autem antemeridiana umbra, ubi est b, et a centro, ubi est A, diducto circino ad id signum umbrae, ubi est B, circumagatur linea rotundationis. reposito autem gnomone ubi antea fuerat, expectanda est, dum decrescat faciatque iterum crescendo parem antemeridianae umbrae postmeridianam tangatque lineam rotundationis, ubi erit littera C. tunc a signo, ubi est B, et a signo, ubi est C, circino decusatim describatur, ubi erit D; deinde per decusationem et centrum, ubi est A, perducatur linea ad extremum, in qua linea erunt litterae E et F. haec linea erit index meridianae et septentrionalis regionis.

[¶29] 6.13. 13. Then find with the compasses a sixteenth part of the entire circumference; then centre the compasses on the point E where the line to the south touches the circumference, and set off the points G and H to the right and left of E. Likewise on the north side, centre the compasses on the circumference at the point F on the line to the north, and set off the points I and K to the right and left; then draw lines through the centre from G to K and from H to I. Thus the space from G to H will belong to Auster and the south, and the space from I to K will be that of Septentrio. The rest of the circumference is to be divided equally into three parts on the right and three on the left, those to the east at the points L and M, those to the west at the points N and O. Finally, intersecting lines are to be drawn from M to O and from L to N. Thus we shall have the circumference divided into eight equal spaces for the winds. The figure being finished, we shall have at the eight different divisions, beginning at the south, the letter G between Eurus and Auster, H between Auster and Africus, N between Africus and Favonius, O between Favonius and Caurus, K between Caurus and Septentrio, I between Septentrio and Aquilo, L between Aquilo and Solanus, and M between Solanus and Eurus. This done, apply a gnomon to these eight divisions and thus fix the directions of the different alleys.

> Latin: 6.13. Tunc circino totius rotundationis sumenda est pars XVI, circinique centrum ponendum est in meridiana linea, qua tangit rotundationem, ubi est littera E, et signandum dextra sinistra, ubi erunt litterae G H. item in septentrionali parte centrum circini ponendum in rotundationis et septentrionali linea, ubi est littera F, et signandum dextra ac sinistra, ubi sunt litterae I et K, et ab G ad K et ab H ad I per centrum lineae perducendae. ita quod erit spatium ab G ad H, erit spatium venti austri et partis meridianae; item quod erit spatium ab I ad K, erit septentrionis. reliquae partes dextra ter ac sinistra ter dividendae sunt aequaliter, quae sunt ad orientem, in quibus litterae L M, et ab occidente, in quibus sunt litterae N et O. ab M ad O et ab L ad N perducendae sunt lineae decusatim. et ita erunt aequaliter ventorum octo spatia in circumitione. quae cum ita descripta erunt, in singulis angulis octagoni, cum a meridie incipiemus, inter eurum et austrum in angulo erit littera G, inter austrum et africum H, inter africum et favonium N, inter favonium et caurum O, inter caurum et septentrionem K, inter septentrionem et aquilonem I, inter aquilonem et solanum L, inter solanum et eurum M. ita his confectis inter angulos octagoni gnomon ponatur, et ita dirigantur angiportorum divisiones.

[¶30] 7.1. 1. HAVING laid out the alleys and determined the streets, we have next to treat of the choice of building sites for temples, the forum, and all other public places, with a view to general convenience and utility. If the city is on the sea, we should choose ground close to the harbour as the place where the forum is to be built; but if inland, in the middle of the town. For the temples, the sites for those of the gods under whose particular protection the state is thought to rest and for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, should be on the very highest point commanding a view of the greater part of the city. Mercury should be in the forum, or, like Isis and Serapis, in the emporium: Apollo and Father Bacchus near the theatre: Hercules at the circus in communities which have no gymnasia nor amphitheatres; Mars outside the city but at the training ground, and so Venus, but at the harbour. It is moreover shown by the Etruscan diviners in treatises on their science that the fanes of Venus, Vulcan, and Mars should be situated outside the walls, in order that the young men and married women may not become habituated in the city to the temptations incident to the worship of Venus, and that buildings may be free from the terror of fires through the religious rites and sacrifices which call the power of Vulcan beyond the walls. As for Mars, when that divinity is enshrined outside the walls, the citizens will never take up arms against each other, and he will defend the city from its enemies and save it from danger in war.

> Latin: 7.1. Divisis angiportis et plateis constitutis arearum electio ad opportunitatem et usum communem civitatis est explicanda aedibus sacris, foro reliquisque locis communibus. et si erunt moenia secundum mare, area, ubi forum constituatur, eligenda proxime portum, sin autem mediterraneo, in oppido medio. aedibus vero sacris, quorum deorum maxime in tutela civitas videtur esse, et Iovi et Iunoni et Minervae, in excelsissimo loco, unde moenium maxima pars conspiciatur, areae distribuantur. Mercurio autem in foro aut etiam, ut Isidi et Serapi, in emporio; Apollini Patrique Libero secundum theatrum; Herculi, in quibus civitatibus non sunt gymnasia neque amphitheatra, ad circum; Marti extra urbem sed ad campum; itemque Veneri ad portum. Id autem etiam Etruscis haruspicibus disciplinarum scripturis ita est dedicatum, extra murum Veneris, Volcani, Martis fana ideo conlocari, uti non insuescat in urbe adulescentibus seu matribus familiarum veneria libido, Volcanique vi e moenibus religionibus et sacrificiis evocata ab timore incendiorum aedificia videantur liberari. Martis vero divinitas cum sit extra moenia dedicata, non erit inter cives armigera dissensio, sed ab hostibus ea defensa belli periculo conservabit.

[¶31] 7.2. 2. Ceres also should be outside the city in a place to which people need never go except for the purpose of sacrifice. That place should be under the protection of religion, purity, and good morals. Proper sites should be set apart for the precincts of the other gods according to the nature of the sacrifices offered to them. The principle governing the actual construction of temples and their symmetry I shall explain in my third and fourth books. In the second I have thought it best to give an account of the materials used in buildings with their good qualities and advantages, and then in the succeeding books to describe and explain the proportions of buildings, their arrangements, and the different forms of symmetry.

> Latin: 7.2. Item Cereri extra urbem loco, quo ⟨non quolibet⟩ nomine semper homines nisi per sacrificium necesse habeant adire; cum religione, caste sanctisque moribus is locus debet tueri. ceterisque diis ad sacrificiorum rationes aptae templis areae sunt distribuendae. De ipsis autem aedibus sacris faciundis et de earum symmetriis in tertio et quarto volumine reddam rationes, quia in secundo visum est mihi primum de materiae copiis, quae in aedificiis sunt parandae, quibus sint virtutibus et quem habeant usum, exponere, ⟨deinde⟩ commensus aedificiorum et ordines et genera singula symmetriarum peragere et in singulis voluminibus explicare.