--- title: "On Architecture · De architectura" author: "Vitruvius" translator: "Morris Hicky Morgan" languages: [la, en] shelf: "Classical Latin" section: 5 of 22 url: https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/5/ cite: "Vitruvius, tr. Morris Hicky Morgan, On Architecture · De architectura, section 5. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/5/" --- # On Architecture · De architectura *Vitruvius, tr. Morris Hicky Morgan* The only architectural treatise to survive from antiquity: firmness, usefulness and beauty, temples and the proportions of the human body, water, sundials and machines. > Latin: ed. Fritz Krohn, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-latinLit, phi1056.phi001, CC BY-SA 4.0). > English: Morris Hicky Morgan, from the Perseus Digital Library (phi1056.phi001.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included. > Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence. ## 5. Book II · chapters 8–10 Source: https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/5/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/vitruvius-on-architecture/5/#p-N [¶0] 8.16. 16. Since such very powerful kings have not disdained walls built of brick, although with their revenues and from booty they might often have had them not only of masonry or dimension stone but even of marble, I think that one ought not to reject buildings made of brick-work, provided that they are properly “topped.” But I shall explain why this kind of structure should not be used by the Roman people within the city, not omitting the reasons and the grounds for them. > Latin: 8.16. Cum ergo tam magna potentia reges non contempserint latericiorum parietum structuras, quibus ex vectigalibus et praeda saepius licitum fuerat non modo caementicio aut quadrato saxo sed etiam marmoreo habere, non puto oportere inprobare quae sunt e latericia structura facta aedificia, dummodo recte sint tecta. sed id genus quid ita populo Romano in urbe fieri non oporteat, exponam, quaeque sunt eius rei causae et rationes, non praetermittam. [¶1] 8.17. 17. The laws of the state forbid that walls abutting on public property should be more than a foot and a half thick. The other walls are built of the same thickness in order to save space. Now brick walls, unless two or three bricks thick, cannot support more than one story; certainly not if they are only a foot and a half in thickness. But with the present importance of the city and the unlimited numbers of its population, it is necessary to increase the number of dwelling-places indefinitely. Consequently, as the ground floors could not admit of so great a number living in the city, the nature of the case has made it necessary to find relief by making the buildings high. In these tall piles reared with piers of stone, walls of burnt brick, and partitions of rubble work, and provided with floor after floor, the upper stories can be partitioned off into rooms to very great advantage. The accommodations within the city walls being thus multiplied as a result of the many floors high in the air, the Roman people easily find excellent places in which to live. > Latin: 8.17. Leges publicae non patiuntur maiores crassitudines quam sesquipedales constitui loco communi; ceteri autem parietes, ne spatia angustiora fierent, eadem crassitudine conlocantur. latericii vero, nisi diplinthii aut triplinthii fuerint, sesquipedali crassitudine non possunt plus quam unam sustinere contignationem. in ea autem maiestate urbis et civium infinita frequentia innumerabiles habitationes opus est explicare. ergo cum recipere non possint areae planatae tantam multitudinem ad habitandum in urbe, ad auxilium altitudinis aedificiorum res ipsa coegit devenire. itaque pilis lapideis, structuris testaceis, parietibus caementiciis altitudines extructae contignationibus crebris coaxatae cenaculorum ad summas utilitates perficiunt despectationes. ergo moenibus e contignationibus areis alto spatio multiplicatis populus Romanus egregias habet sine inpeditione habitationes. [¶2] 8.18. 18. It has now been explained how limitations of building space necessarily forbid the employment of brick walls within the city. When it becomes necessary to use them outside the city, they should be constructed as follows in order to be perfect and durable. On the top of the wall lay a structure of burnt brick, about a foot and a half in height, under the tiles and projecting like a coping. Thus the defects usual in these walls can be avoided. For when the tiles on the roof are broken or thrown down by the wind so that rain-water can leak through, this burnt brick coating will prevent the crude brick from being damaged, and the cornice-like projection will throw off the drops beyond the vertical face, and thus the walls, though of crude brick structure, will be preserved intact. > Latin: 8.18. Quoniam ergo explicata ratio est, quid ita in urbe propter necessitatem angustiarum non patiuntur esse latericios parietes, cum extra urbem opus erit his uti. ⟨ut sint⟩ sine vitiis ad vetustatem, sic erit faciendum. summis parietibus structura testacea sub tegula subiciatur altitudine circiter sesquipedali habeatque proiecturas coronarum. ita vitari poterunt quae solent in his fieri vitia; cum enim in tecto tegulae fuerint fractae aut a ventis deiectae, qua possint ex imbribus aquae perpluere, non patietur lorica testacea laedi laterem, sed proiectura coronarum reiciet extra perpendiculum stillas et ea ratione servaverit integras parietum latericiorum structuras. [¶3] 8.19. 19. With regard to burnt brick, nobody can tell offhand whether it is of the best or unfit to use in a wall, because its strength can be tested only after it has been used on a roof and exposed to bad weather and time—then, if it is good it is accepted. If not made of good clay or if not baked sufficiently, it shows itself defective there when exposed to frosts and rime. Brick that will not stand exposure on roofs can never be strong enough to carry its load in a wall. Hence the strongest burnt brick walls are those which are constructed out of old roofing tiles. > Latin: 8.19. De ipsa autem testa, si sit optima seu vitiosa ad structuram, statim nemo potest iudicare, quod in tempestatibus et aestate in tecto cum est conlocata, tunc, si est firma, probatur; namque quae non fuerit ex creta bona aut parum erit cocta, ibi se ostendet esse vitiosam gelicidiis et pruina tacta. ergo quae non in tectis poterit pati laborem, ea non potest in structura oneri ferendo esse firma. quare maxime ex veteribus tegulis tecta ⟨et ex vetere testa⟩ structi parietes firmitatem poterunt habere. [¶4] 8.20. 20.As for “wattle and daub” I could wish that it had never been invented. The more it saves in time and gains in space, the greater and the more general is the disaster that it may cause; for it is made to catch fire, like torches. It seems better, therefore, to spend on walls of burnt brick, and be at expense, than to save with “wattle and daub,” and be in danger. And, in the stucco covering, too, it makes cracks from the inside by the arrangement of its studs and girts. For these swell with moisture as they are daubed, and then contract as they dry, and, by their shrinking, cause the solid stucco to split. But since some are obliged to use it either to save time or money, or for partitions on an unsupported span, the proper method of construction is as follows. Give it a high foundation so that it may nowhere come in contact with the broken stone-work composing the floor; for if it is sunk in this, it rots in course of time, then settles and sags forward, and so breaks through the surface of the stucco covering. I have now explained to the best of my ability the subject of walls, and the preparation of the different kinds of material employed, with their advantages and disadvantages. Next, following the guidance of Nature, I shall treat of the frame-work and the kinds of wood used in it, showing how they may be procured of a sort that will not give way as time goes on. > Latin: 8.20. Craticii vero velim quidem ne inventi essent; quantum enim celeritate et loci laxamento prosunt, tanto maiori et communi sunt calamitati, quod ad incendia uti faces sunt parati. itaque satius esse videtur inpensa testaceorum in sumptu, quam compendio craticiorum esse in periculo. etiamque in tectoriis operibus rimas hi faciunt arrectariorum et transversariorum dispositione. cum enim linuntur, recipientes umorem turgescunt, deinde siccescendo contrahuntur et ita extenuati disrumpunt tectoriorum soliditatem. sed quoniam nonnullos celeritas aut inopia aut in pendenti loco dissaeptio cogit, sic erit faciundum. solum substruatur [aliae], ut sit intactum ab rudere et pavimento; obruta enim in his cum sunt, vetustate marcida fiunt; deinde subsidentia proclinantur et disrumpunt speciem tectoriorum. De parietibus et apparitione generatim materiae eorum, quibus sint virtutibus et vitiis, quemadmodum potui, exposui; de contignationibus autem et copiis earum, quibus comparentur, ut ad vetustatem non sint infirmae, uti natura rerum monstrat, explicabo. [¶5] 9.1. 1. TIMBER should be felled between early Autumn and the time when Favonius begins to blow. For in Spring all trees become pregnant, and they are all employing their natural vigour in the production of leaves and of the fruits that return every year. The requirements of that season render them empty and swollen, and so they are weak and feeble because of their looseness of texture. This is also the case with women who have conceived. Their bodies are not considered perfectly healthy until the child is born; hence, pregnant slaves, when offered for sale, are not warranted sound, because the fetus as it grows within the body takes to itself as nourishment all the best qualities of the mother's food, and so the stronger it becomes as the full time for birth approaches, the less compact it allows that body to be from which it is produced. After the birth of the child, what was heretofore taken to promote the growth of another creature is now set free by the delivery of the newborn, and the channels being now empty and open, the body will take it in by lapping up its juices, and thus becomes compact and returns to the natural strength which it had before. > Latin: 9.1. Materies caedenda est a primo autumno ad id tempus, quod erit antequam flare incipiat favonius. vere enim omnes arbores fiunt praegnantes et omnes suae proprietatis virtutem efferunt in frondem anniversariosque fructus. cum ergo inanes et tumidae temporum necessitate eorum fuerint, vanae fiunt et raritatibus inbecillae; uti etiam corpora muliebria, cum conceperint fetus, a partu non iudicantur integra, neque in venalibus ea, cum sunt praegnantia, praestantur sana, ideo quod in corpore praeseminatio crescens ex omnibus cibi potestatibus detrahit alimentum in se, et quo firmior efficitur ad maturitatem partus, eo minus patitur esse solidum id ipsum, ex quo procreatur. itaque edito fetu, quod prius in aliud genus incrementi detrahebatur, cum disparatione procreationis est liberatum, inanibus et patentibus venis in se recipiens lambendo sucum etiam solidescit et redit in pristinam naturae firmitatem. [¶6] 9.2. 2. On the same principle, with the ripening of the fruits in Autumn the leaves begin to wither and the trees, taking up their sap from the earth through the roots, recover themselves and are restored to their former solid texture. But the strong air of winter compresses and solidifies them during the time above mentioned. Consequently, if the timber is felled on the principle and at the time above mentioned, it will be felled at the proper season. > Latin: 9.2. Eadem ratione autumnali tempore maturitate fructuum flaccescente fronde, ex terra recipientes caudices arborum in se sucum recuperantur et restituuntur in antiquam soliditatem. at vero aeris hiberni vis comprimit et consolidat eas per id, ut supra scriptum est, tempus. ergo si ea ratione et eo tempore, quod est supra scriptum, caeditur materies, erit tempestiva. [¶7] 9.3. 3. In felling a tree we should cut into the trunk of it to the very heart, and then leave it standing so that the sap may drain out drop by drop throughout the whole of it. In this way the useless liquid which is within will run out through the sapwood instead of having to die in a mass of decay, thus spoiling the quality of the timber. Then and not till then, the tree being drained dry and the sap no longer dripping, let it be felled and it will be in the highest state of usefulness. > Latin: 9.3. Caedi autem ita oportet, uti incidatur arboris crassitudo ad mediam medullam, et relinquatur, uti per eam exsiccescat stillando sucus. ita qui inest in his inutilis liquor effluens per torulum non patietur emori in eo saniem nec corrumpi materiae aequalitatem. tum autem, cum sicca et sine stillis erit arbor, deiciatur et ita erit optima in usu. [¶8] 9.4. 4. That this is so may be seen in the case of fruit trees. When these are tapped at the base and pruned, each at the proper time, they pour out from the heart through the tapholes all the superfluous and corrupting fluid which they contain, and thus the draining process makes them durable. But when the juices of trees have no means of escape, they clot and rot in them, making the trees hollow and good for nothing. Therefore, if the draining process does not exhaust them while they are still alive, there is no doubt that, if the same principle is followed in felling them for timber, they will last a long time and be very useful in buildings. > Latin: 9.4. Hoc autem ita esse licet animum advertere etiam de arbustis. ea enim cum suo quoque tempore ad imum perforata castrantur, profundunt e medullis quem habent in se superantem et vitiosum per foramina liquorem, et ita siccescendo recipiunt in se diuturnitatem. qui autem non habent ex arboribus exitus umores, intra concrescentes putrescunt et efficiunt inanes eas ⟨et⟩ vitiosas. ergo si stantes et vivae siccescendo non senescunt, sine dubio, cum eae ad materiam deiciuntur, cum ea ratione curatae fuerint, habere poterunt magnas in aedificiis ad vetustatem utilitates. [¶9] 9.5. 5. Trees vary and are unlike one another in their qualities. Thus it is with the oak, elm, poplar, cypress, fir, and the others which are most suitable to use in buildings. The oak, for instance, has not the efficacy of the fir, nor the cypress that of the elm. Nor in the case of other trees, is it natural that they should be alike; but the individual kinds are effective in building, some in one way, some in another, owing to the different properties of their elements. > Latin: 9.5. Hae autem inter se discrepantes et dissimiles habent virtutes, uti robur, ulmus, populus, cupressus, abies ceteraque, quae maxime in aedificiis sunt idonea. namque non potest id robur, quod abies, nec cupressus, quod ulmus, nec cetera easdem habent inter se natura rerum similitates, sed singula genera principiorum proprietatibus comparata alios alii generis praestant in operibus effectus. [¶10] 9.6. 6. To begin with fir: it contains a great deal of air and fire with very little moisture and the earthy, so that, as its natural properties are of the lighter class, it is not heavy. Hence, its consistence being naturally stiff, it does not easily bend under the load, and keeps its straightness when used in the framework. But it contains so much heat that it generates and encourages decay, which spoils it; and it also kindles fire quickly because of the air in its body, which is so open that it takes in fire and so gives out a great flame. > Latin: 9.6. Et primum abies aeris habens plurimum et ignis minimumque umoris et terreni, levioribus rerum natura e potestatibus comparata non est ponderosa. itaque rigore naturali contenta non cito flectitur ab onere, sed directa permanet in contignatione. sed ea, quod habet in se plus caloris, procreat et alit cariem ab eaque vitiatur, etiamque ideo celeriter accenditur, quod quae inest in eo corpore aeris raritas, ut est patens, accipit ignem et ita vehementem ex se mittit flammam. [¶11] 9.7. 7. The part which is nearest to the earth before the tree is cut down takes up moisture through the roots from the immediate neighbourhood and hence is without knots and is “clear.” But the upper part, on account of the great heat in it, throws up branches into the air through the knots; and this, when it is cut off about twenty feet from the ground and then hewn, is called “knotwood” because of its hardness and knottiness. The lowest part, after the tree is cut down and the sapwood of the same thrown away, is split up into four pieces and prepared for joiner's work, and so is called “clearstock.” > Latin: 9.7. Ex ea autem, aut nequam est excisa, quae pars est proxima terrae, per radices recipiens ex proximitate umorem enodis et liquida efficitur; quae vero est superior, vehementia caloris eductis in aera per nodos ramis, praecisa alte circiter pedes XX et perdolata propter nodationis duritiem dicitur esse fusterna. ima autem, cum excisa quadrifluviis disparatur, eiecto torulo ex eadem arbore ad intestina opera comparatur et ⟨ab⟩ infima fusterna sappinea vocatur. [¶12] 9.8. 8. Oak, on the other hand, having enough and to spare of the earthy among its elements, and containing but little moisture, air, and fire, lasts for an unlimited period when buried in underground structures. It follows that when exposed to moisture, as its texture is not loose and porous, it cannot take in liquid on account of its compactness, but, withdrawing from the moisture, it resists it and warps, thus making cracks in the structures in which it is used. > Latin: 9.8. Contra vero quercus terrenis principiorum satietatibus abundans parumque habens umoris et aeris et ignis, cum in terrenis operibus obruitur, infinitam habet aeternitatem. ex eo cum tangitur umore, non habens foraminum raritates propter spissitatem non potest in corpus recipere liquorem, sed fugiens ab umore resistit et torquetur et efficit, in quibus est operibus, ea rimosa. [¶13] 9.9. 9. The winter oak, being composed of a moderate amount of all the elements, is very useful in buildings, but when in a moist place, it takes in water to its centre through its pores, its air and fire being expelled by the influence of the moisture, and so it rots. The Turkey oak and the beech, both containing a mixture of moisture, fire, and the earthy, with a great deal of air, through this loose texture take in moisture to their centre and soon decay. White and black poplar, as well as willow, linden, and the agnus castus, containing an abundance of fire and air, a moderate amount of moisture, and only a small amount of the earthy, are composed of a mixture which is proportionately rather light, and so they are of great service from their stiffness. Although on account of the mixture of the earthy in them they are not hard, yet their loose texture makes them gleaming white, and they are a convenient material to use in carving. > Latin: 9.9. Aesculus vero, quod est omnibus principiis temperata, habet in aedificiis magnas utilitates; sed ea, cum in umore conlocatur, recipiens penitus per foramina liquorem eiecto aere et igni operatione umidae potestatis vitiatur. cerrus, [quercus] fagus, quod pariter habent mixtionem umoris et ignis et terreni, aeris plurimum, per huius raritates umores penitus recipiendo celeriter marcescunt. populus alba et nigra, item salix, tilia, cum non sint dura terreni mixtione, propter raritatem sunt candida et in sculpturis commodam praestant tractabilitatem. vitex ignis et aeris habendo satietatem, umoris temperate, parum autem terreni habens leviore temperatura comparata egregiam habere videtur in usu rigiditatem. [¶14] 9.10. 10. The alder, which is produced close by river banks, and which seems to be altogether useless as building material, has really excellent qualities. It is composed of a very large proportion of air and fire, not much of the earthy, and only a little moisture. Hence, in swampy places, alder piles driven close together beneath the foundations of buildings take in the water which their own consistence lacks and remain imperishable forever, supporting structures of enormous weight and keeping them from decay. Thus a material which cannot last even a little while above ground, endures for a long time when covered with moisture. > Latin: 9.10. Alnus autem, quae proxima fluminum ripis procreatur et minime materies utilis videtur, habet in se egregias rationes. etenim ⟨est⟩ aere et igni plurimo temperata, non multum terreno, umore paulo. itaque in palustribus locis infra fundamenta aedificiorum palationibus crebre fixa, recipiens in se quod minus habet in corpore liquoris, permanet inmortalis ad aeternitatem et sustinet inmania pondera structurae et sine vitiis conservat. ita quae non potest extra terram paulum tempus durare, ea in umore obruta permanet ad diuturnitatem. [¶15] 9.11. 11. One can see this at its best in Ravenna; for there all the buildings, both public and private, have piles of this sort beneath their foundations. The elm and the ash contain a very great amount of moisture, a minimum of air and fire, and a moderate mixture of the earthy in their composition. When put in shape for use in buildings they are tough and, having no stiffness on account of the weight of moisture in them, soon bend. But when they become dry with age, or are allowed to lose their sap and die standing in the open, they get harder, and from their toughness supply a strong material for dowels to be used in joints and other articulations. > Latin: 9.11. Est autem maxime id considerare Ravennae, quod ibi omnia opera et publica et privata sub fundamentis eius generis habeant palos. ulmus vero et fraxinus maximos habent umores minimumque aeris et ignis, terreni temperate. ⟨ea e⟩ mixtione comparatae, sunt in operibus, cum fabricantur, lentae et ab pondere umoris non habent rigorem et celeriter pandant; simul autem vetustate sunt aridae factae aut in agro perfecto qui est eis liquor stantes emoriuntur, fiunt duriores et in commissuris et coagmentationibus ab lentitudine firmas recipiunt catenationes. [¶16] 9.12. 12. The hornbeam, which has a very small amount of fire and of the earthy in its composition, but a very great proportion of air and moisture, is not a wood that breaks easily, and is very convenient to handle. Hence, the Greeks call it “zygia,” because they make of it yokes for their draught-animals, and their word for yoke is ζυγά. Cypress and pine are also just as admirable; for although they contain an abundance of moisture mixed with an equivalent composed of all the other elements, and so are apt to warp when used in buildings on account of this superfluity of moisture, yet they can be kept to a great age without rotting, because the liquid contained within their substances has a bitter taste which by its pungency prevents the entrance of decay or of those little creatures which are destructive. Hence, buildings made of these kinds of wood last for an unending period of time. > Latin: 9.12. Item carpinus, quod est minima ignis et terreni mixtione, aeris autem et umoris summa continetur temperatura, non est fragilis, sed habet utilissimam tractabilitatem. itaque Graeci, quod ex ea materia iuga iumentis comparant, quod apud eos iuga ζυγά vocitantur, item ζυγίην eam appellant. non minus est admirandum de cupresso et pinu, quod eae habentes umoris abundantiam aequamque ceterorum mixtionem, propter umoris satietatem in operibus solent esse pandae, sed in vetustatem sine vitiis conservantur, quod is liquor, qui inest penitus in corporibus earum, habet amarum saporem, qui propter acritudinem non patitur penetrare cariem neque eas bestiolas, quae sunt nocentes. ideoque quae ex his generibus opera constituuntur, permanent ad aeternam diuturnitatem. [¶17] 9.13. 13. The cedar and the juniper tree have the same uses and good qualities, but, while the cypress and pine yield resin, from the cedar is produced an oil called cedar-oil. Books as well as other things smeared with this are not hurt by worms or decay. The foliage of this tree is like that of the cypress but the grain of the wood is straight. The statue of Diana in the temple at Ephesus is made of it, and so are the coffered ceilings both there and in all other famous fanes, because that wood is everlasting. The tree grows chiefly in Crete, Africa, and in some districts of Syria. > Latin: 9.13. Item cedrus et iuniperus easdem habent virtutes et utilitates; sed quemadmodum ex cupressu ⟨et⟩ pinu resina, ex cedro oleum, quod cedrium dicitur, nascitur, quo reliquae res cum sunt unctae, uti etiam libri, a tineis et carie non laeduntur. arboris autem eius sunt similes cupresseae foliaturae; materies vena directa. Ephesi in aede simulacrum Dianae ex ea, lacunaria et ibi et in ceteris nobilibus fanis propter aeternitatem sunt facta. nascuntur autem eae arbores maxime Cretae et Africae et nonnullis Syriae regionibus. [¶18] 9.14. 14. The larch, known only to the people of the towns on the banks of the river Po and the shores of the Adriatic, is not only preserved from decay and the worm by the great bitterness of its sap, but also it cannot be kindled with fire nor ignite of itself, unless like stone in a limekiln it is burned with other wood. And even then it does not take fire nor produce burning coals, but after a long time it slowly consumes away. This is because there is a very small proportion of the elements of fire and air in its composition, which is a dense and solid mass of moisture and the earthy, so that it has no open pores through which fire can find its way; but it repels the force of fire and does not let itself be harmed by it quickly. Further, its weight will not let it float in water, so that when transported it is loaded on shipboard or on rafts made of fir. > Latin: 9.14. Larix vero, qui non est notus nisi îs municipalibus, qui sunt circa ripam fluminis Padi et litora maris Hadriani, non solum ab suci vehementi amaritate ab carie aut tinea non nocetur, sed etiam flammam ex igni non recipit, nec ipse per se potest ardere, nisi uti saxum in fornace ad calcem coquendam aliis lignis uratur; nec tamen tunc flammam recipit nec carbonem remittit, sed longo spatio tarde comburitur. ⟨namque ea materies,⟩ quod est minima ignis et aeris e principiis temperatura, umore autem et terreno est spisse solidata, non habet spatia foraminum, qua possit ignis penetrare, reicitque eius vim nec patitur ab eo sibi cito noceri, propterque pondus ab aqua non sustinetur, sed cum portatur, aut in navibus aut supra abiegnas rates conlocatur. [¶19] 9.15. 15. It is worth while to know how this wood was discovered. The divine Caesar, being with his army in the neighbourhood of the Alps, and having ordered the towns to furnish supplies, the inhabitants of a fortified stronghold there, called Larignum, trusting in the natural strength of their defences, refused to obey his command. So the general ordered his forces to the assault. In front of the gate of this stronghold there was a tower, made of beams of this wood laid in alternating directions at right angles to each other, like a funeral pyre, and built high, so that they could drive off an attacking party by throwing stakes and stones from the top. When it was observed that they had no other missiles than stakes, and that these could not be hurled very far from the wall on account of the weight, orders were given to approach and to throw bundles of brushwood and lighted torches at this outwork. These the soldiers soon got together. > Latin: 9.15. Ea autem materies quemadmodum sit inventa, est causa cognoscere. divus Caesar cum exercitum habuisset circa Alpes imperavissetque municipiis praestare commeatus, ibique esset castellum munitum, quod vocaretur Larignum, tunc, qui in eo fuerunt, naturali munitione confisi noluerunt imperio parere. itaque imperator copias iussit admoveri. erat autem ante eius castelli portam turris ex hac materia alternis trabibus transversis uti pyra inter se composita alte, uti possent de summo sudibus et lapidibus accedentes repellere. tunc vero cum animadversum est alia eos tela praeter sudes non habere neque posse longius a muro propter pondus iaculari, imperatum est fasciculos ex virgis alligatos et faces ardentes ad eam munitionem accedentes mittere. [¶20] 9.16. 16. The flames soon kindled the brushwood which lay about that wooden structure and, rising towards heaven, made everybody think that the whole pile had fallen. But when the fire had burned itself out and subsided, and the tower appeared to view entirely uninjured, Caesar in amazement gave orders that they should be surrounded with a palisade, built beyond the range of missiles. So the townspeople were frightened into surrendering, and were then asked where that wood came from which was not harmed by fire. They pointed to trees of the kind under discussion, of which there are very great numbers in that vicinity. And so, as that stronghold was called Larignum, the wood was called larch. It is transported by way of the Po to Ravenna, and is to be had in Fano, Pesaro, Ancona, and the other towns in that neighbourhood. If there were only a ready method of carrying this material to Rome, it would be of the greatest use in buildings; if not for general purposes, yet at least if the boards used in the eaves running round blocks of houses were made of it, the buildings would be free from the danger of fire spreading across to them, because such boards can neither take fire from flames or from burning coals, nor ignite spontaneously. > Latin: 9.16. Itaque celeriter milites congesserunt. posteaquam flamma circa illam materiam virgas comprehendisset, ad caelum sublata effecit opinionem, uti videretur iam tota moles concidisse. cum autem ea per se extincta esset et re quieta turris intacta apparuisset, admirans Caesar iussit extra telorum missionem eos circumvallari. itaque timore coacti oppidani cum se dedidissent, quaesitum, unde essent ea ligna, quae ab igni non laederentur. tunc ei demonstraverunt eas arbores, quarum in his locis maximae sunt copiae. et ideo id castellum Larignum, item materies larigna est appellata. haec autem per Padum Ravennam deportatur, in colonia Fanestri, Pisauri, Anconae reliquisque, quae sunt in ea regione, municipiis praebetur. cuius materies si esset facultas adportationibus ad urbem, maximae haberentur in aedificiis utilitates, et si non in omne, certe tabulae in subgrundiis circum insulas si essent ex ea conlocatae, ab traiectionis incendiorum aedificia periculo liberarentur, quod eae neque flammam nec carbonem possunt recipere nec facere per se. [¶21] 9.17. 17. The leaves of these trees are like those of the pine; timber from them comes in long lengths, is as easily wrought in joiner's work as is the clearwood of fir, and contains a liquid resin, of the colour of Attic honey, which is good for consumptives. With regard to the different kinds of timber, I have now explained of what natural properties they appear to be composed, and how they were produced. It remains to consider the question why the highland fir, as it is called in Rome, is inferior, while the lowland fir is extremely useful in buildings so far as durability is concerned; and further to explain how it is that their bad or good qualities seem to be due to the peculiarities of their neighbourhood, so that this subject may be clearer to those who examine it. > Latin: 9.17. Sunt autem eae arbores foliis similibus pini; materies earum prolixa, tractabilis ad intestinum opus non minus quam sappinea, habetque resinam liquidam mellis Attici colore, quae etiam medetur pthisicis. De singulis generibus, quibus proprietatibus e natura rerum videantur esse comparatae quibusque procreantur rationibus, exposui. insequitur animadversio, quid ita quae in urbe supernas dicitur abies, deterior est, quae infernas, egregios in aedificiis ad diuturnitatem praestat usus, et de his rebus, quemadmodum videantur e locorum proprietatibus habere vitia aut virtutes, uti ea sint considerantibus apertiora, exponere. [¶22] 10.1. 1. THE first spurs of the Apennines arise from the Tuscan sea between the Alps and the most distant borders of Tuscany. The mountain range itself bends round and, almost touching the shores of the Adriatic in the middle of the curve, completes its circuit by extending to the strait on the other shore. Hence, this side of the curve, sloping towards the districts of Tuscany and Campania, lies basking in the sun, being constantly exposed to the full force of its rays all day. But the further side, sloping towards the Upper Sea and having a northern exposure, is constantly shrouded in shadowy darkness. Hence the trees which grow on that side, being nourished by the moisture, not only themselves attain to a very large size, but their fibre too, filled full of moisture, is swollen and distended with abundance of liquid. When they lose their vitality after being felled and hewn, the fibre retains its stiffness, and the trees as they dry become hollow and frail on account of their porosity, and hence cannot last when used in buildings. > Latin: 10.1. Montis Appennini primae radices ab Tyrrenico mari inter Alpis et extremas Etruriae regiones oriuntur. eius vero montis iugum se circumagens et media curvatura prope tangens oras maris Hadriani pertingit circumitionibus contra fretum. itaque citerior eius curvatura, quae vergit ad Etruriae Campaniaeque regiones, apricis est potestatibus; namque impetus habet perpetuos ad solis cursum. ulterior autem, quae est proclinata ad superum mare, septentrionali regioni subiecta continetur umbrosis et opacis perpetuitatibus. itaque quae in ea parte nascuntur arbores, umida potestate nutritae non solum ipsae augentur amplissimis magnitudinibus, sed earum quoque venae umoris copia repletae turgentes liquoris abundantia saturantur. cum autem excisae et dolatae vitalem potestatem amiserunt, venarum rigore permanente siccescendo propter raritatem fiunt inanes et evanidae, ideoque in aedificiis non possunt habere diuturnitatem. [¶23] 10.2. 2. But trees which grow in places facing the course of the sun are not of porous fibre but are solid, being drained by the dryness; for the sun absorbs moisture and draws it out of trees as well as out of the earth. The trees in sunny neighbourhoods, therefore, being solidified by the compact texture of their fibre, and not being porous from moisture, are very useful, so far as durability goes, when they are hewn into timber. Hence the lowland firs, being conveyed from sunny places, are better than those highland firs, which are brought here from shady places. > Latin: 10.2. Quae autem ad solis cursum spectantibus locis procreantur, non habentes interveniorum raritates siccitatibus exsuctae solidantur, quia sol non modo ex terra lambendo sed etiam ex arboribus educit umores. itaque, quae sunt in apricis regionibus, spissis venarum crebritatibus solidatae raritatemque non habentes ex umore, cum in materiem perdolantur, reddunt magnas utilitates ad vetustatem. ideo infernates, quod ex apricis locis adportantur, meliores sunt, quam quae ab opacis de supernatibus advehuntur. [¶24] 10.3. 3. To the best of my mature consideration, I have now treated the materials which are necessary in the construction of buildings, the proportionate amount of the elements which are seen to be contained in their natural composition, and the points of excellence and defects of each kind, so that they may be not unknown to those who are engaged in building. Thus those who can follow the directions contained in this treatise will be better informed in advance, and able to select, among the different kinds, those which will be of use in their works. Therefore, since the preliminaries have been explained, the buildings themselves will be treated in the remaining books; and first, as due order requires, I shall in the next book write of the temples of the immortal gods and their symmetrical proportions. > Latin: 10.3. Quantum animo considerare potui, de copiis, quae sunt necessariae in aedificiorum comparationibus, et quibus temperaturis e rerum natura principiorum habere videantur mixtionem quaeque insunt in singulis generibus virtutes et vitia, uti non sint ignota aedificantibus, exposui. ita, qui potuerint eorum praeceptorum sequi praescriptiones, erunt prudentiores singulorumque generum usum eligere poterunt in operibus. ergo quoniam de apparitionibus est explicatum, in ceteris voluminibus de ipsis aedificiis exponetur; et primum de deorum inmortalium aedibus sacris et de earum symmetriis et proportionibus, uti ordo postulat, insequenti perscribam.