---
title: "Ways and Means · Πόροι ἢ περὶ προσόδων"
author: "Xenophon"
translator: "Edgar Carew Marchant"
languages: [grc, en]
shelf: "Classical Greek"
section: 4 of 6
url: https://scriptura.si/works/xenophon-ways-and-means/4/
cite: "Xenophon, tr. Edgar Carew Marchant, Ways and Means · Πόροι ἢ περὶ προσόδων, section 4. Scriptura (scriptura.si), https://scriptura.si/works/xenophon-ways-and-means/4/"
---

# Ways and Means · Πόροι ἢ περὶ προσόδων

*Xenophon, tr. Edgar Carew Marchant*

Proposals to restore the revenues of Athens.

> Greek: ed. Edgar Carew Marchant, from the Perseus Digital Library (canonical-greekLit, tlg0032.tlg011, CC BY-SA 4.0).

> English: Edgar Carew Marchant, from the Perseus Digital Library (tlg0032.tlg011.perseus-eng2). Notes are not included.

> Rows follow the references the two texts share (books, chapters and sections), cut where both reach the end of a sentence.

## 4. Chapter 4

Source: https://scriptura.si/works/xenophon-ways-and-means/4/ · cite a paragraph as https://scriptura.si/works/xenophon-ways-and-means/4/#p-N

[¶0] 1. As for the silver mines, I believe that if a proper system of working were introduced, a vast amount of money would be obtained from them apart from our other sources of revenue. I want to point out the possibilities of these mines to those who do not know. For, once you realize their possibilities, you will be in a better position to consider how the mines should be managed.

> Greek: 1. τά γε μὴν ἀργύρεια εἰ κατασκευασθείη ὡς δεῖ, πάμπολλα ἂν νομίζω χρήματα ἐξ αὐτῶν καὶ ἄνευ τῶν ἄλλων προσόδων προσιέναι. βούλομαι δὲ καὶ τοῖς μὴ εἰδόσι τὴν τούτων δύναμιν δηλῶσαι. ταύτην γὰρ γνόντες καὶ ὅπως χρῆσθαι δεῖ αὐτοῖς ἄμεινον ἂν βουλεύοισθε.

[¶1] 2. Now, we all agree that the mines have been worked for many generations. At any rate, no one even attempts to date the beginning of mining operations. And yet, although digging and the removal of the silver ore have been carried on for so long a time, note how small is the size of the dumps compared with the virgin and silver-laden hills.

> Greek: 2. οὐκοῦν ὅτι μὲν πάνυ πάλαι ἐνεργά ἐστι, πᾶσι σαφές· οὐδεὶς γοῦν οὐδὲ πειρᾶται λέγειν ἀπὸ ποίου χρόνου ἐπεχειρήθη· οὕτω δὲ πάλαι ὀρυττομένης τε καὶ ἐκφορουμένης τῆς ἀργυρίτιδος κατανοήσατε τί μέρος οἱ ἐκβεβλημένοι σωροὶ τῶν αὐτοφυῶν τε καὶ ὑπαργύρων λόφων.

[¶2] 3. And it is continually being found that, so far from shrinking, the silver-yielding area extends further and further. Well, so long as the maximum number of workmen was employed in them, no one ever wanted a job; in fact, there were always more jobs than the labourers could deal with.

> Greek: 3. οὐδὲ μὴν ὁ ἀργυρώδης τόπος εἰς μεῖόν τι συστελλόμενος, ἀλλʼ ἀεὶ ἐπὶ πλέον ἐκτεινόμενος φανερός ἐστιν. ἐν ᾧ γε μὴν χρόνῳ οἱ πλεῖστοι ἄνθρωποι ἐγένοντο ἐν αὐτοῖς, οὐδεὶς πώποτε ἔργου ἠπόρησεν, ἀλλʼ ἀεὶ τὰ ἔργα τῶν ἐργαζομένων περιῆν.

[¶3] 4. And even at the present day no owner of slaves employed in the mines reduces the number of his men; on the contrary, every master obtains as many more as he can. The fact is, I imagine, that when there are few diggers and searchers, the amount of metal recovered is small, and when there are many, the total of ore discovered is multiplied. Hence of all the industries with which I am acquainted this is the only one in which expansion of business excites no jealousy.

> Greek: 4. καὶ νῦν δὲ οἱ κεκτημένοι ἐν τοῖς μετάλλοις ἀνδράποδα οὐδεὶς τοῦ πλήθους ἀφαιρεῖ, ἀλλʼ ἀεὶ προσκτᾶται ὁπόσα ἂν πλεῖστα δύνηται. καὶ γὰρ δὴ ὅταν μὲν ὀλίγοι ὀρύττωσι καὶ ζητῶσιν, ὀλίγα οἶμαι καὶ τὰ χρήματα εὑρίσκεται· ὅταν δὲ πολλοί, πολλαπλασία ἡ ἀργυρῖτις ἀναφαίνεται.

[¶4] 5. Further than this, every farmer can tell just how many yoke of oxen are enough for the farm and how many labourers. To put more on the land than the requisite number is counted loss. In mining undertakings, on the contrary, everyone tells you that he is short of labour.

> Greek: 5. ὥστε ἐν μόνῳ τούτῳ ὧν ἐγὼ οἶδα ἔργων οὐδὲ φθονεῖ οὐδεὶς τοῖς ἐπικατασκευαζομένοις. ἔτι δὲ οἱ μὲν ἀγροὺς κεκτημένοι πάντες ἔχοιεν ἂν εἰπεῖν ὁπόσα ζεύγη ἀρκεῖ εἰς τὸ χωρίον καὶ ὁπόσοι ἐργάται· ἢν δʼ ἐπὶ πλέον τῶν ἱκανῶν ἐμβάλλῃ τις, ζημίαν λογίζονται· ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἀργυρείοις ἔργοις πάντες δή φασιν ἐνδεῖσθαι ἐργατῶν.

[¶5] 6. Mining, in fact, is quite different from other industries. An increase in the number of coppersmiths, for example, produces a fall in the price of copper work, and the coppersmiths retire from business. The same thing happens in the iron trade. Again, when corn and wine are abundant, the crops are cheap, and the profit derived from growing them disappears, so that many give up farming and set up as merchants or shopkeepers or moneylenders. But an increase in the amount of the silver ore discovered and of the metal won is accompanied by an increase in the number of persons who take up this industry.

> Greek: 6. καὶ γὰρ οὐδʼ ὥσπερ ὅταν πολλοὶ χαλκοτύποι γένωνται, ἀξίων γενομένων τῶν χαλκευτικῶν ἔργων, καταλύονται οἱ χαλκοτύποι, καὶ οἱ σιδηρεῖς γε ὡσαύτως· καὶ ὅταν γε πολὺς σῖτος καὶ οἶνος γένηται, ἀξίων ὄντων τῶν καρπῶν, ἀλυσιτελεῖς αἱ γεωργίαι γίγνονται, ὥστε πολλοὶ ἀφέμενοι τοῦ τὴν γῆν ἐργάζεσθαι ἐπʼ ἐμπορίας καὶ καπηλείας καὶ τοκισμοὺς τρέπονται· ἀργυρῖτις δὲ ὅσῳ ἂν πλείων φαίνηται καὶ ἀργύριον πλέον γίγνηται, τοσούτῳ πλείονες ἐπὶ τὸ ἔργον τοῦτο ἔρχονται.

[¶6] 7. Neither is silver like furniture, of which a man never buys more when once he has got enough for his house. No one ever yet possessed so much silver as to want no more; if a man finds himself with a huge amount of it, he takes as much pleasure in burying the surplus as in using it.

> Greek: 7. καὶ γὰρ δὴ ἔπιπλα μέν, ἐπειδὰν ἱκανά τις κτήσηται τῇ οἰκίᾳ, οὐ μάλα ἔτι προσωνοῦνται· ἀργύριον δὲ οὐδείς πω οὕτω πολὺ ἐκτήσατο ὥστε μηκέτι προσδεῖσθαι· ἀλλʼ ἤν τισι γένηται παμπληθές, τὸ περιττεῦον κατορύττοντες οὐδὲν ἧττον ἥδονται ἢ χρώμενοι αὐτῷ.

[¶7] 8. Mark too that, whenever states are prosperous, silver is in strong demand. The men will spend money on fine arms and good horses and magnificent houses and establishments, and the women go in for expensive clothes and gold jewelry.

> Greek: 8. καὶ μὴν ὅταν γε εὖ πράττωσιν αἱ πόλεις, ἰσχυρῶς οἱ ἄνθρωποι ἀργυρίου δέονται. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἄνδρες ἀμφὶ ὅπλα τε καλὰ καὶ ἵππους ἀγαθοὺς [τε] καὶ οἰκίας καὶ κατασκευὰς μεγαλοπρεπεῖς βούλονται δαπανᾶν, αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες εἰς ἐσθῆτα πολυτελῆ καὶ χρυσοῦν κόσμον τρέπονται.

[¶8] 9. If, on the other hand, the body politic is diseased owing to failure of the harvest or to war, the land goes out of cultivation and there is a much more insistent demand for cash to pay for food and mercenaries.

> Greek: 9. ὅταν τε αὖ νοσήσωσιν ⟨αἱ⟩ πόλεις ἢ ἀφορίαις καρπῶν ἢ πολέμῳ, ἔτι καὶ πολὺ μᾶλλον, ἀργοῦ τῆς γῆς γιγνομένης, καὶ εἰς ἐπιτήδεια καὶ εἰς ἐπικούρους νομίσματος δέονται.

[¶9] 10. If anyone says that gold is quite as useful as silver, I am not going to contradict him; but I know this, that when gold is plentiful, silver rises and gold falls in value.

> Greek: 10. εἰ δέ τις φήσειε καὶ χρυσίον μηδὲν ἧττον χρήσιμον εἶναι ἢ ἀργύριον, τούτῳ μὲν οὐκ ἀντιλέγω, ἐκεῖνο μέντοι οἶδα, ὅτι καὶ χρυσίον ὅταν πολὺ παραφανῇ, αὐτὸ μὲν ἀτιμότερον γίγνεται, τὸ δὲ ἀργύριον τιμιώτερον ποιεῖ.

[¶10] 11. With these facts before us, we need not hesitate to bring as much labour as we can get into the mines and carry on work in them, feeling confident that the ore will never give out and that silver will never lose its value.

> Greek: 11. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἐδήλωσα τούτου ἕνεκα, ὅπως θαρροῦντες μὲν ὅτι πλείστους ἀνθρώπους ἐπὶ τὰ ἀργύρεια ἄγωμεν, θαρροῦντες δὲ κατασκευαζώμεθα ἐν αὐτοῖς, ὡς οὔτε ἐπιλειψούσης ποτὲ ⟨τῆς⟩ ἀργυρίτιδος οὔτε τοῦ ἀργυρίου ἀτίμου ποτὲ ἐσομένου.

[¶11] 12. I think, indeed, that the state has anticipated me in this discovery; at any rate she throws open the mining industry to foreigners on the same terms as are granted to citizens.

> Greek: 12. δοκεῖ δέ μοι καὶ ἡ πόλις προτέρα ἐμοῦ ταῦτʼ ἐγνωκέναι· παρέχει γοῦν ἐπὶ ἰσοτελείᾳ καὶ τῶν ξένων τῷ βουλομένῳ ἐργάζεσθαι ἐν τοῖς μετάλλοις.

[¶12] 13. To make myself clearer on the subject of alimony, I will now explain how the mines may be worked with the greatest advantage to the state. Not that I expect to surprise you by what I am going to say, as if I had found the solution of a difficult problem. For some things that I shall mention are still to be seen by anyone at the present day, and as for conditions in the past, our fathers have told us that they were similar.

> Greek: 13. ἵνα δὲ καὶ σαφέστερον περὶ τῆς τροφῆς εἴπω, νῦν διηγήσομαι ὡς κατασκευασθέντα τὰ ἀργύρεια ὠφελιμώτατʼ ἂν εἴη τῇ πόλει. ἀπʼ αὐτῶν μὲν οὖν ἔγωγε [ἀφʼ] ὧν μέλλω λέγειν οὐδέν τι ἀξιῶ θαυμάζεσθαι ὡς δυσεύρετόν τι ἐξηυρηκώς· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὧν λέξω καὶ νῦν ἔτι πάντες ὁρῶμεν, τὰ δὲ παροιχόμενα πάντες κατὰ ταὐτὰ αὖ ἀκούομεν.

[¶13] 14. But what may well excite surprise is that the state, being aware that many private individuals are making money out of her, does not imitate them. Those of us who have given thought to the matter have heard long ago, I imagine, that Nicias son of Niceratus, once owned a thousand men in the mines, and let them out to Socias the Thracian, on condition that Sosias paid him an obol a day per man net and filled all vacancies as they occurred.

> Greek: 14. τῆς μέντοι πόλεως πάνυ ἄξιον θαυμάσαι τὸ αἰσθανομένην πολλοὺς πλουτιζομένους ἐξ αὐτῆς ἰδιώτας μὴ μιμεῖσθαι τούτους. πάλαι μὲν γὰρ δήπου οἷς μεμέληκεν ἀκηκόαμεν ὅτι Νικίας ποτὲ ὁ Νικηράτου ἐκτήσατο ἐν τοῖς ἀργυρείοις χιλίους ἀνθρώπους, οὓς ἐκεῖνος Σωσίᾳ τῷ Θρᾳκὶ ἐξεμίσθωσεν, ἐφʼ ᾧ ὀβολὸν μὲν ἀτελῆ ἑκάστου τῆς ἡμέρας ἀποδιδόναι, τὸν δʼ ἀριθμὸν ἴσους ἀεὶ παρέχειν.

[¶14] 15. Hipponicus, again, had six hundred slaves let out on the same terms and received a rent of a mina a day net. Philemonides had three hundred, and received half a mina. There were others too, owning numbers in proportion, I presume, to their capital.

> Greek: 15. ἐγένετο δὲ καὶ Ἱππονίκῳ ἑξακόσια ἀνδράποδα κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον τοῦτον ἐκδεδομένα, ἃ προσέφερε μνᾶν ἀτελῆ τῆς ἡμέρας, Φιλημονίδῃ δὲ τριακόσια ⟨ἃ⟩ ἡμιμναῖον, ἄλλοις δέ γε ὡς, οἴομαι, δύναμις ἑκάστοις ὑπῆρχεν.

[¶15] 16. But why dwell on the past? At this day there are many men in the mines let out in this way.

> Greek: 16. ἀτὰρ τί τὰ παλαιὰ δεῖ λέγειν; καὶ γὰρ νῦν πολλοί εἰσιν ἐν τοῖς ἀργυρείοις ἄνθρωποι οὕτως ἐκδεδομένοι.

[¶16] 17. Were my proposals adopted, the only innovation would be, that just as private individuals have built up a permanent income by becoming slave owners, so the state would become possessed of public slaves, until there were three for every citizen.

> Greek: 17. περαινομένων γε μὴν ὧν λέγω τοῦτʼ ἂν μόνον καινὸν γένοιτο, εἰ ὥσπερ οἱ ἰδιῶται κτησάμενοι ἀνδράποδα πρόσοδον ἀέναον κατεσκευασμένοι εἰσίν, οὕτω καὶ ἡ πόλις κτῷτο δημόσια ἀνδράποδα, ἕως γίγνοιτο τρία ἑκάστῳ Ἀθηναίων.

[¶17] 18. Whether my plan is workable, let anyone who chooses judge for himself by examining it in detail. So let us take first the cost of the men. Clearly the treasury is in a better position to provide the money than private individuals. Moreover the Council can easily issue a notice inviting all and sundry to bring slaves, and can buy those that are brought to it.

> Greek: 18. εἰ δὲ δυνατὰ λέγομεν καθʼ ἓν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν σκοπῶν ὁ βουλόμενος κρινέτω. οὐκοῦν τιμὴν μὲν ἀνθρώπων εὔδηλον ὅτι μᾶλλον ἂν τὸ δημόσιον δύναιτο ἢ οἱ ἰδιῶται παρασκευάσασθαι. τῇ γε μὴν βουλῇ ῥᾴδιον καὶ κηρύξαι ἄγειν τὸν βουλόμενον ἀνδράποδα καὶ τὰ προσαχθέντα πρίασθαι.

[¶18] 19. When once they are purchased, why should there be more hesitation about hiring from the treasury than from a private person, the terms offered being the same? At any rate men hire consecrated lands and houses, and farm taxes under the state.

> Greek: 19. ἐπειδὰν δὲ ὠνηθῇ, τί ἂν ἧττον μισθοῖτό τις παρὰ τοῦ δημοσίου ἢ παρὰ τῶν ἰδιωτῶν, ἐπὶ τοῖς αὐτοῖς μέλλων ἕξειν; μισθοῦνται γοῦν καὶ τεμένη [καὶ ἱερὰ] καὶ οἰκίας καὶ τέλη ὠνοῦνται παρὰ τῆς πόλεως.

[¶19] 20. The treasury can insure the slaves purchased by requiring some of the lessees to become guarantors, as it does in the case of the tax-farmers. In fact a tax-farmer can swindle the state more easily than a lessee of slaves.

> Greek: 20. ὅπως γε μὴν τὰ ὠνηθέντα σῴζηται, τῷ δημοσίῳ ἔστι λαμβάνειν ἐγγύους παρὰ τῶν μισθουμένων, ὥσπερ καὶ παρὰ τῶν ὠνουμένων τὰ τέλη. ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ ἀδικῆσαί γε ῥᾷον τῷ τέλος πριαμένῳ ἢ τῷ ἀνδράποδα μισθουμένῳ.

[¶20] 21. For how are you to detect the export of public money? Money looks the same whether it is private property or belongs to the state. But how is a man to steal slaves when they are branded with the public mark and it is a penal offence to sell or export them? So far, then, it appears to be possible for the state to acquire and to keep men.

> Greek: 21. ἀργύριον μὲν γὰρ πῶς καὶ φωράσειεν ἄν τις τὸ δημόσιον ἐξαγόμενον, ὁμοίου τοῦ ἰδίου ὄντος αὐτῷ; ἀνδράποδα δὲ σεσημασμένα τῷ δημοσίῳ σημάντρῳ καὶ προκειμένης ζημίας τῷ τε πωλοῦντι καὶ τῷ ἐξάγοντι, πῶς ἄν τις ταῦτα κλέψειεν; οὐκοῦν μέχρι μὲν τούτου δυνατὸν φαίνεται τῇ πόλει εἶναι τὸ ἀνθρώπους καὶ κτήσασθαι καὶ φυλάξαι.

[¶21] 22. But, one may ask, when labour is abundant, how will a sufficient number of persons be found to hire it? Well, if anyone feels doubtful about that, let him comfort himself with the thought that many men in the business will hire the state slaves as additional hands, since they have abundance of capital, and that among those now working in the mines many are growing old. Moreover there are many others, both Athenians and foreigners, who have neither will nor strength to work with their own hands, but would be glad to to make a living by becoming managers.

> Greek: 22. εἰ δʼ αὖ τις τοῦτʼ ἐνθυμεῖται, πῶς ἐπειδὰν πολλοὶ ἐργάται γένωνται, πολλοὶ φανοῦνται καὶ οἱ μισθωσόμενοι, ἐκεῖνο κατανοήσας θαρρείτω, ὅτι πολλοὶ μὲν τῶν κατεσκευασμένων προσμισθώσονται τοὺς δημοσίους (πολλὰ γάρ ἐστι τὰ ὑπάρχοντα), πολλοὶ δʼ εἰσὶ καὶ αὐτῶν τῶν ἐν τοῖς ἔργοις γηράσκοντες, πολλοὶ δὲ καὶ ἄλλοι καὶ Ἀθηναῖοι καὶ ξένοι οἳ τῷ σώματι μὲν οὔτε βούλοιντʼ ἂν οὔτε δύναιντʼ ἂν ἐργάζεσθαι, τῇ δὲ γνώμῃ ἐπιμελόμενοι ἡδέως ἂν τὰ ἐπιτήδεια πορίζοιντο.

[¶22] 23. Assume, however, that the total number of slaves to begin with is twelve hundred. By using the revenue derived from these the number might in all probability be raised to six thousand at the least in the course of five or six years. Further, if each man brings in a clear obol a day, the annual revenue derived from that number of men is sixty talents.

> Greek: 23. ἤν γε μέντοι τὸ πρῶτον συστῇ διακόσια καὶ χίλια ἀνδράποδα, εἰκὸς ἤδη ἀπʼ αὐτῆς τῆς προσόδου ἐν ἔτεσι πέντε ἢ ἓξ μὴ μεῖον ἂν τῶν ἑξακισχιλίων γενέσθαι. ἀπό γε μὴν τούτου τοῦ ἀριθμοῦ ἢν ὀβολὸν ἕκαστος ἀτελῆ τῆς ἡμέρας προσφέρῃ, ἡ μὲν πρόσοδος ἑξήκοντα τάλαντα τοῦ ἐνιαυτοῦ.

[¶23] 24. Out of this sum, if twenty talents are invested in additional slaves, the state will have forty talents available for any other necessary purpose. And when a total of ten thousand men is reached, the revenue will be a hundred talents.

> Greek: 24. ἀπὸ δὲ τούτων ἢν εἰς ἄλλα ἀνδράποδα τιθῆται εἴκοσι, τοῖς τετταράκοντα ἤδη ἐξέσται τῇ πόλει χρῆσθαι εἰς ἄλλο ὅ τι ἂν δέῃ. ὅταν δέ γε μύρια ἀναπληρωθῇ, ἑκατὸν τάλαντα ἡ πρόσοδος ἔσται.

[¶24] 25. But the state will receive far more than that, as anyone will testify who is old enough to remember how much the charge for slave labour brought in before the trouble at Decelea. And there is another proof. During the history of the mines an infinite number of men has worked in them; and yet the condition of the mines to-day is exactly the same as it was in the time of our ancestors, and their memory ran not to the contrary.

> Greek: 25. ὅτι δὲ δέξεται πολλαπλάσια τούτων μαρτυρήσαιεν ἄν μοι εἴ τινες ἔτι εἰσὶ τῶν μεμνημένων ὅσον τὸ τέλος ηὕρισκε τῶν ἀνδραπόδων πρὸ τῶν ἐν Δεκελείᾳ. μαρτυρεῖ δὲ κἀκεῖνο, ὅτι εἰργασμένων ἀνθρώπων ἐν τοῖς ἀργυρείοις ἐν τῷ παντὶ χρόνῳ ἀναριθμήτων νῦν οὐδὲν διαφέρει τὰ ἀργύρεια ἢ οἷα οἱ πρόγονοι ἡμῶν ὄντα ἐμνημόνευον αὐτά.

[¶25] 26. And present conditions all lead to the conclusion that the number of slaves employed there can never be greater than the works need. For the miners find no limit to shaft or gallery.

> Greek: 26. καὶ τὰ νῦν δὲ γιγνόμενα πάντα μαρτυρεῖ ὅτι οὐκ ἄν ποτε πλείω ἀνδράποδα ἐκεῖ γένοιτο ἢ ὅσων [ἂν] τὰ ἔργα δεῖται. οὔτε γὰρ βάθους πέρας οὔτε ὑπονόμων οἱ ὀρύττοντες εὑρίσκουσι.

[¶26] 27. And, mark you, it is as possible now to open new veins as in former times. Nor can one say with any certainty whether the ore is more plentiful in the area already under work or in the unexplored tracts.

> Greek: 27. καὶ μὴν καινοτομεῖν γε οὐδὲν ἧττον ἔξεστι νῦν ἢ πρότερον. οὐ τοίνυν οὐδʼ εἰπεῖν ἂν ἔχοι εἰδὼς οὐδεὶς πότερον ἐν τοῖς κατατετμημένοις πλείων ἀργυρῖτις ἢ ἐν τοῖς ἀτμήτοις ἐστί.

[¶27] 28. Then why, it may be asked, are fewer new cuttings made nowadays than formerly? Simply because those interested in the mines are poorer. For operations have only lately been resumed, and a man who makes a new cutting incurs a serious risk. If he strikes good stuff he makes a fortune; but if he is disappointed, he loses the money he has spent.

> Greek: 28. τί δῆτα, φαίη ἄν τις, οὐ καὶ νῦν, ὥσπερ ἔμπροσθεν, πολλοὶ καινοτομοῦσιν; ὅτι πενέστεροι μὲν νῦν εἰσιν οἱ περὶ τὰ μέταλλα· νεωστὶ γὰρ πάλιν κατασκευάζονται· κίνδυνος δὲ μέγας τῷ καινοτομοῦντι·

[¶28] 29. Therefore people nowadays are very chary of taking such a risk. However, I think I can meet this difficulty too, and suggest a plan that will make the opening of new cuttings a perfectly safe undertaking. The Athenians, of course, are divided into ten tribes. Now assume that the state were to offer each tribe an equal number of slaves, and that when new cuttings were made, the tribes were to pool their luck.

> Greek: 29. ὁ μὲν γὰρ εὑρὼν ἀγαθὴν ἐργασίαν πλούσιος γίγνεται, ὁ δὲ μὴ εὑρὼν πάντα ἀπόλλυσιν ὅσα ἂν δαπανήσῃ. εἰς τοῦτον οὖν τὸν κίνδυνον οὐ μάλα πως ἐθέλουσιν οἱ νῦν ἰέναι. ἐγὼ μέντοι ἔχειν μοι δοκῶ καὶ περὶ τούτου συμβουλεῦσαι ὡς ἂν ἀσφαλέστατα καινοτομοῖτο. εἰσὶ μὲν γὰρ δήπου Ἀθηναίων δέκα φυλαί· εἰ δʼ ἡ πόλις δοίη ἑκάστῃ αὐτῶν ἴσα ἀνδράποδα, αἱ δὲ κοινωσάμεναι τὴν τύχην καινοτομοῖεν, οὕτως ἄν, εἰ μία εὕροι, πάσαις ἂν λυσιτελὲς ἀποδείξειεν, εἰ δὲ δύο ἢ τρεῖς ἢ τέτταρες ἢ αἱ ἡμίσειαι εὕροιεν, δῆλον ὅτι ⟨ἔτι⟩ λυσιτελέστερα ἂν τὰ ἔργα ταῦτα γίγνοιτο.

[¶29] 31. The result would be that if one tribe found silver, the discovery would be profitable to all; and if two, three, four, or half the tribes found, the profits from these works would obviously be greater. Nothing that has happened in the past makes it probable that all would fail to find. Of course, private individuals also are able to combine on this principle and pool their fortunes in order to diminish the risk. Nevertheless there is no reason to fear that a public company formed on this plan will conflict with the interests of private persons, or be hampered by them. No, just as every new adhesion to a confederacy brings an increase of strength to all its members, so the greater the number of persons operating in the mines, the more treasure they will discover and unearth.

> Greek: 31. τό γε μὴν πάσας ἀποτυχεῖν οὐδενὶ τῶν παρεληλυθότων ἐοικός. οἷόν τε δὴ οὕτως καὶ ἰδιώτας συνισταμένους καὶ κοινουμένους τὴν τύχην ἀσφαλέστερον κινδυνεύειν. μηδὲ μέντοι τοῦτο φοβεῖσθε, ὡς ἢ τὸ δημόσιον οὕτω κατασκευαζόμενον παραλυπήσει τοὺς ἰδιώτας ἢ οἱ ἰδιῶται τὸ δημόσιον· ἀλλʼ ὥσπερ σύμμαχοι, ὅσῳ ἂν πλείους συνιῶσιν, ἰσχυροτέρους ἀλλήλους ποιοῦσιν, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἀργυρείοις ὅσῳπερ ἂν πλείους ἐργάζωνται, τόσῳ πλείω τἀγαθὰ εὑρήσουσί τε καὶ ἐκφορήσουσι.

[¶30] 33. I have now explained what regulations I think should be introduced into the state in order that every Athenian may receive sufficient maintenance at the public expense.

> Greek: 33. καὶ ἐμοὶ μὲν δὴ εἴρηται ὡς ἂν ἡγοῦμαι κατασκευασθείσης τῆς πόλεως ἱκανὴν ἂν πᾶσιν Ἀθηναίοις τροφὴν ἀπὸ κοινοῦ γενέσθαι.

[¶31] 34. Some may imagine that enough money would never be subscribed to provide the huge amount of capital necessary, according to their calculations, to finance all these schemes. But even so they need not despair.

> Greek: 34. εἰ δέ τινες λογιζόμενοι παμπόλλης ἂν δεῖν ἀφορμῆς εἰς ταῦτα πάντα οὐχ ἡγοῦνται ἱκανὰ ἄν ποτε χρήματα εἰσενεχθῆναι, μηδὲ οὕτως ἀθυμούντων.

[¶32] 35. For it is not essential that the plan should be carried out in all its details in order that any advantage may come of it. No, whatever the number of houses built, or of ships constructed, or of slaves purchased, they will immediately prove a paying concern.

> Greek: 35. οὐ γὰρ οὕτως ἔχει, ὡς ἀνάγκῃ ἅμα ταῦτα πάντα γίγνεσθαι ἢ μηδὲν ὄφελος αὐτῶν εἶναι· ἀλλʼ ὁπόσα ἂν ἢ οἰκοδομηθῇ ἢ ναυπηγηθῇ ἢ ἀνδράποδα ὠνηθῇ, εὐθὺς ταῦτα ἐν ὠφελείᾳ ἔσται.

[¶33] 36. In fact in one respect it will be even more profitable to proceed gradually than to do everything at once. For if everybody begins building, we shall pay more for worse work than if we carry out the undertaking gradually; and if we try to find an enormous number of slaves, we shall be forced to buy inferior men at a high price.

> Greek: 36. ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ τῇδέ γε συμφορώτερον τὸ κατὰ μέρος ἢ τὸ ἅμα πάντα πράττεσθαι. οἰκοδομοῦντές τε γὰρ ἁθρόοι πολυτελέστερον ἂν καὶ κάκιον ἢ κατὰ μέρος ἀποτελοῖμεν, ἀνδράποδα δὲ παμπληθῆ ζητοῦντες ἀναγκαζοίμεθʼ ἂν καὶ χείρω καὶ τιμιώτερα ὠνεῖσθαι.

[¶34] 37. By proceeding as our means allow, we can repeat whatever is well conceived and avoid the repetition of mistakes.

> Greek: 37. κατά γε μὴν τὸ δυνατὸν περαίνοντες τὰ μὲν καλῶς γνωσθέντα καὶ αὖθις ἂν ἡμῖν οἰόμεθα·

[¶35] 38. Besides, were the whole scheme put in hand at once, we should have to find the whole of the money; but if some parts were proceeded with and others postponed, the income realised would help to provide the amount still required.

> Greek: 38. εἰ δέ τι ἁμαρτηθείη, ἀπεχοίμεθα ἂν αὐτοῦ. ἔτι δὲ πάντων ἅμα γιγνομένων ἡμᾶς ἂν ἅπαντα δέοι ἐκπορίζεσθαι· εἰ δὲ τὰ μὲν περαίνοιτο, τὰ δὲ μέλλοι, ἡ ὑπάρξασα πρόσοδος τὸ ἐπιτήδειον συγκατασκευάζοι ἄν.

[¶36] 39. Possibly the gravest fear in everyone’s mind is that the works may become overcrowded if the state acquires too many slaves. But we can rid ourselves of that fear by not putting more men in year by year than the works themselves require.

> Greek: 39. ὃ δὲ ἴσως φοβερώτατον δοκεῖ πᾶσιν εἶναι, μή, εἰ ἄγαν πολλὰ κτήσαιτο ἡ πόλις ἀνδράποδα, ὑπεργεμισθείη ἂν τὰ ἔργα, καὶ τούτου τοῦ φόβου ἀπηλλαγμένοι ἂν εἴημεν, εἰ μὴ πλείονας ἀνθρώπους ἢ ὅσους αὐτὰ τὰ ἔργα προσαιτοίη κατʼ ἐνιαυτὸν ἐμβάλοιμεν.

[¶37] 40. Accordingly I hold that this, which is the easiest way, is also the best way of doing these things. On the other hand, if you think that the burdens imposed during the late war make it impossible for you to contribute anything at all—well, keep down the cost of administration during the next year to the amount that the taxes yielded before the peace; and invest the balances over and above that amount, which you will get with peace, with considerate treatment of resident aliens and merchants, with the growth of imports and exports due to concentration of a larger population, and with the expansion of harbour and market dues, so that the investment will bring in the largest revenue.

> Greek: 40. οὕτως ἔμοιγε δοκεῖ, ᾗπερ ῥᾷστον, ταύτῃ καὶ ἄριστον εἶναι ταῦτα πράττειν. εἰ δʼ αὖ διὰ τὰς ἐν τῷ νῦν πολέμῳ γεγενημένας εἰσφορὰς νομίζετʼ ἂν μηδʼ ὁτιοῦν δύνασθαι εἰσενεγκεῖν, ὑμεῖς δὴ ὅσα μὲν πρὸ τῆς εἰρήνης χρήματα ηὕρισκε τὰ τέλη, ἀπὸ τοσούτων καὶ τὸ ἐπιὸν ἔτος διοικεῖτε τὴν πόλιν, ὅσα δʼ ἂν ἐφευρίσκῃ διὰ τὸ εἰρήνην τε εἶναι καὶ διὰ τὸ θεραπεύεσθαι μετοίκους καὶ ἐμπόρους καὶ διὰ τὸ πλειόνων ἀνθρώπων πλείω εἰσάγεσθαι καὶ ἐξάγεσθαι καὶ διὰ τὸ ⟨τὰ⟩ ἐλλιμένια καὶ τὰς ἀγορὰς αὐξάνεσθαι, ταῦτα λαμβάνοντες κατασκευάζεσθε ὡς ἂν πλεῖσται ⟨αἱ⟩ πρόσοδοι γίγνοιντο.

[¶38] 41. Or again, if any fear that this scheme would prove worthless in the event of war breaking out, they should observe that, with this system at work, war becomes far more formidable to the aggressors than to the city.

> Greek: 41. εἰ δέ τινες αὖ φοβοῦνται μὴ ματαία ἂν γένοιτο αὕτη ἡ κατασκευή, εἰ πόλεμος ἐγερθείη, ἐννοησάτωσαν ὅτι τούτων γιγνομένων πολὺ φοβερώτερος ὁ πόλεμος τοῖς ἐπιφέρουσιν ἢ τῇ πόλει.

[¶39] 42. For what instrument is more serviceable for war than men? We should have enough of them to supply crews to many ships of the state; and many men available for service in the ranks as infantry could press the enemy hard, if they were treated with consideration.

> Greek: 42. τί γὰρ δὴ εἰς πόλεμον κτῆμα χρησιμώτερον ἀνθρώπων; πολλὰς μὲν γὰρ ναῦς πληροῦν ἱκανοὶ ἂν εἶεν δημοσίᾳ· πολλοὶ δʼ ἂν καὶ πεζοὶ [δημοσίᾳ] δύναιντʼ ἂν βαρεῖς εἶναι τοῖς πολεμίοις, εἴ τις αὐτοὺς θεραπεύοι.

[¶40] 43. But I reckon that, even in the event of war, the mines need not be abandoned. There are, of course, two fortresses in the mining district, one at Anaphlystus on the south side, the other at Thoricus on the north. The distance between them is about seven miles and a half.

> Greek: 43. λογίζομαι δʼ ἔγωγε καὶ πολέμου γιγνομένου οἷόν τʼ εἶναι μὴ ἐκλείπεσθαι τὰ ἀργύρεια. ἔστι μὲν γὰρ δήπου περὶ τὰ μέταλλα ἐν τῇ πρὸς μεσημβρίαν [θαλάττῃ] τεῖχος ἐν Ἀναφλύστῳ, ἔστι δʼ ἐν τῇ πρὸς ἄρκτον τεῖχος ἐν Θορικῷ· ἀπέχει δὲ ταῦτα ἀπʼ ἀλλήλων ἀμφὶ τὰ ἑξήκοντα στάδια.

[¶41] 44. Now suppose that we had a third stronghold between them on the highest point of Besa. The works would then be linked up by all the fortresses, and at the first intimation of a hostile movement, every man would have but a short distance to go in order to reach safety.

> Greek: 44. εἰ οὖν καὶ ἐν μέσῳ τούτων γένοιτο ἐπὶ τῷ ὑψηλοτάτῳ Βήσης τρίτον ἔρυμα, συνήκοι τʼ ἂν τὰ ἔργα εἰς ἓν ἐξ ἁπάντων τῶν τειχῶν, καὶ εἴ τι αἰσθάνοιτο πολεμικόν, βραχὺ ἂν εἴη ἑκάστῳ εἰς τὸ ἀσφαλὲς ἀποχωρῆσαι.

[¶42] 45. In case an enemy came in force, he would, no doubt, seize any corn or wine or cattle that he found outside; but the silver ore, when he had got it, would be of as much use to him as a heap of stones.

> Greek: 45. εἰ δὲ καὶ ἔλθοιεν πλείους οἱ πολέμιοι, δῆλον ὅτι εἰ μὲν σῖτον ἢ οἶνον ἢ πρόβατα ἔξω εὕροιεν, ἀφέλοιντʼ ἂν ταῦτα· ἀργυρίτιδος δὲ κρατήσαντες τί ἂν μᾶλλον ἢ λίθοις ἔχοιεν χρῆσθαι;

[¶43] 46. And how could an enemy ever go for the mines? The distance between Megara, the nearest city, and the silver mines, is of course much more than five hundred furlongs; and Thebes, which is next in proximity, lies at a distance of much more than six hundred furlongs from them.

> Greek: 46. πῶς δὲ καὶ ὁρμήσειαν ⟨ἄν⟩ ποτε πολέμιοι πρὸς τὰ μέταλλα; ἀπέχει μὲν γὰρ δήπου τῶν ἀργυρείων ⟨ἡ⟩ ἐγγύτατα πόλις Μέγαρα πολὺ πλέον τῶν πεντακοσίων σταδίων· ἀπέχει δὲ ἡ μετὰ ταῦτα πλησιαίτατα Θῆβαι πολὺ πλέον τῶν ἑξακοσίων.

[¶44] 47. Let us assume, then, that an enemy is marching on the mines from some such point. He is bound to pass Athens; and if his numbers are small, he is likely to be destroyed by our cavalry and patrols. On the other hand, to march on them with a large force, leaving his own property unprotected, is no easy matter; for when he arrived at the mines the city of Athens would be much nearer to his own states than he himself would be.

> Greek: 47. ἢν οὖν πορεύωνται ἐντεῦθέν ποθεν ἐπὶ τὰ ἀργύρεια, παριέναι αὐτοὺς δεήσει τὴν πόλιν· κἂν μὲν ὦσιν ὀλίγοι, εἰκὸς αὐτοὺς ἀπόλλυσθαι καὶ ὑπὸ ἱππέων καὶ ὑπὸ περιπόλων. πολλῇ γε μὴν δυνάμει πορεύεσθαι ἐξερημοῦντας τὰ ἑαυτῶν χαλεπόν· πολὺ γὰρ ἐγγύτερον ἂν εἴη ταῖς πόλεσιν αὐτῶν τὸ τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἄστυ ἢ αὐτοὶ [οἱ] πρὸς τοῖς μετάλλοις ὄντες.

[¶45] 48. But even supposing that he should come, how is he to stay without supplies? And to send part of their forces in search of food may mean destruction to the foraging party and failure to achieve the ends for which he is contending; or if the whole force is continually foraging it will find itself blockaded instead of blockading.

> Greek: 48. εἰ δὲ καὶ ἔλθοιεν, πῶς ἂν καὶ δύναιντο μένειν μὴ ἔχοντες τὰ ἐπιτήδεια; ἐπισιτίζεσθαί γε μὴν μέρει μὲν κίνδυνος καὶ περὶ τῶν μετιόντων καὶ περὶ ὧν ἀγωνίζονται· πάντες δὲ ἀεὶ μετιόντες πολιορκοῖντʼ ἂν μᾶλλον ἢ πολιορκοῖεν.

[¶46] 49. However, the rent derived from the slaves would not be the only source of relief to the community. With the concentration of a large population in the mining district, abundant revenue would be derived from the local market, from state-owned houses near the silver mines, from furnaces and all the other sources.

> Greek: 49. οὐ τοίνυν μόνον ἡ ἀπὸ τῶν ἀνδραπόδων ἀποφορὰ τὴν διατροφὴν τῇ πόλει αὔξοι ἄν, ἀλλὰ πολυανθρωπίας περὶ τὰ μέταλλα ἁθροιζομένης καὶ ἀπʼ ἀγορᾶς τῆς ἐκεῖ καὶ ἀπʼ οἰκιῶν περὶ τἀργύρεια δημοσίων καὶ ἀπὸ καμίνων καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἄλλων ἁπάντων πρόσοδοι ἂν πολλαὶ γίγνοιντο.

[¶47] 50. For a densely populated city would grow up there, if it were organised on this plan; yes, and building sites would become as valuable there as they are in our suburbs.

> Greek: 50. ἰσχυρῶς γὰρ καὶ αὐτὴ πολυάνθρωπος ἂν γένοιτο πόλις, εἰ οὕτως κατασκευασθείη· καὶ οἵ γε χῶροι οὐδὲν ἂν εἶεν μείονος ἄξιοι τοῖς κεκτημένοις ἐνταῦθα ἢ τοῖς περὶ τὸ ἄστυ.

[¶48] 51. If the plans that I have put forward are carried out, I agree that, apart from the improvement in our financial position, we shall become a people more obedient, better disciplined, and more efficient in war.

> Greek: 51. πραχθέντων γε μὴν ὧν εἴρηκα [ξύμ]φημὶ ἐγὼ οὐ μόνον ἂν χρήμασιν εὐπορωτέραν τὴν πόλιν εἶναι, ἀλλὰ καὶ εὐπειθεστέραν καὶ εὐτακτοτέραν καὶ εὐπολεμωτέραν γενέσθαι.

[¶49] 52. For the classes undergoing physical training will take more pains in the gymnasium when they receive their maintenance in full than they take under the superintendents of the torch races; and the classes on garrison duty in a fortress, or serving as targeteers, or patrolling the country will show greater alacrity in carrying out all these duties when the maintenance is duly supplied for the work done.

> Greek: 52. οἵ τε γὰρ ταχθέντες γυμνάζεσθαι πολὺ ἂν ἐπιμελέστερον τοῦτο πράττοιεν ἐν τοῖς γυμνασίοις τὴν τροφὴν ἀπολαμβάνοντες [πλείω] ἢ ἐν ταῖς λαμπάσι γυμνασιαρχούμενοι· οἵ τε φρουρεῖν ἐν τοῖς φρουρίοις οἵ τε πελτάζειν καὶ περιπολεῖν τὴν χώραν πάντα ταῦτα μᾶλλον ἂν πράττοιεν, ἐφʼ ἑκάστοις τῶν ἔργων τῆς τροφῆς ἀποδιδομένης.