11. Whoever studies and observes these things may be able to foresee most of the effects which will result from the changes of the seasons; and one ought to be particularly guarded during the greatest changes of the seasons, and neither willingly give medicines, nor apply the cautery to the belly, nor make incisions there until ten or more days be past. Now, the greatest and most dangerous are the two solstices, and especially the summer, and also the two equinoxes, but especially the autumnal. One ought also to be guarded about the rising of the stars, especially of the Dogstar, then of Arcturus, and then the setting of the Pleiades; for diseases are especially apt to prove critical in those days, and some prove fatal, some pass off, and all others change to another form and another constitution. So it is with regard to them.
11. κατὰ ταῦτά τις ἐννοεύμενος καὶ σκοπεύμενος προειδείη ἂν τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν μελλόντων ἔσεσθαι ἀπὸ τῶν μεταβολέων. φυλάσσεσθαι δὲ χρὴ μάλιστα τὰς μεταβολὰς τῶν ὡρέων τὰς μεγίστας καὶ μήτε φάρμακον διδόναι ἑκόντα μήτε καίειν ὅ τι ἐς κοιλίην μήτε τάμνειν, πρὶν παρέλθωσιν ἡμέραι δέκα ἢ καὶ πλείονες· μέγισται δέ εἰσιν αἵδε αἱ τέσσαρες καὶ ἐπικινδυνόταται· ἡλίου τροπαὶ ἀμφότεραι καὶ μᾶλλον αἱ θεριναὶ καὶ αἱ ἰσημερίαι νομιζόμεναι εἶναι ἀμφότεραι, μᾶλλον δὲ αἱ μετοπωριναί· δεῖ δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄστρων τὰς ἐπιτολὰς φυλάσσεσθαι καὶ μάλιστα τοῦ κυνός, ἔπειτα ἀρκτούρου, καὶ ἔτι πληϊάδων δύσιν. τά τε γὰρ νοσεύματα μάλιστα ἐν ταύτῃσι τῇσιν ἡμέρῃσιν κρίνεται. καὶ τὰ μὲν ἀποφθίνει, τὰ δὲ λήγει, τὰ δὲ ἄλλα πάντα μεθίσταται ἐς ἕτερον εἶδος καὶ ἑτέρην κατάστασιν.
12. I wish to show, respecting Asia and Europe, how, in all respects, they differ from one another, and concerning the figure of the inhabitants, for they are different, and do not at all resemble one another. To treat of all would be a long story, but I will tell you how I think it is with regard to the greatest and most marked differences. I say, then, that Asia differs very much from Europe as to the nature of all things, both with regard to the productions of the earth and the inhabitants, for everything is produced much more beautiful and large in Asia; the country is milder, and the dispositions of the inhabitants also are more gentle and affectionate. The cause of this is the temperature of the seasons, because it lies in the middle of the risings of the sun towards the east, and removed from the cold (and heat), for nothing tends to growth and mildness so much as when the climate has no predominant quality, but a general equality of temperature prevails. It is not everywhere the same with regard to Asia, but such parts of the country as lie intermediate between the heat and the cold, are the best supplied with fruits and trees, and have the most genial climate, and enjoy the purest waters, both celestial and terrestrial. For neither are they much burnt up by the heat, nor dried up by the drought and want of rain, nor do they suffer from the cold; since they are well watered from abundant showers and snow, and the fruits of the season, as might be supposed, grow in abundance, both such as are raised from seed that has been sown, and such plants as the earth produces of its own accord, the fruits of which the inhabitants make use of, training them from their wild state and transplanting them to a suitable soil; the cattle also which are reared there are vigorous, particularly prolific, and bring up young of the fairest description; the inhabitants too, are well fed, most beautiful in shape, of large stature, and differ little from one another either as to figure or size; and the country itself, both as regards its constitution and mildness of the seasons, may be said to bear a close resemblance to the spring. Manly courage, endurance of suffering, laborious enterprise, and high spirit, could not be produced in such a state of things either among the native inhabitants or those of a different country, for there pleasure necessarily reigns. For this reason, also, the forms of wild beasts there are much varied. Thus it is, as I think, with the Egyptians and Libyans.
12. περὶ μὲν τούτων οὕτως ἔχει. βούλομαι δὲ περὶ τῆς Ἀσίης καὶ τῆς Εὐρώπης δεῖξαι ὁκόσον διαφέρουσιν ἀλλήλων ἐς τὰ πάντα καὶ περὶ τῶν ἐθνέων τῆς μορφῆς, ὅτι διαλλάσσει καὶ μηδὲν ἔοικεν ἀλλήλοισιν. περὶ μὲν οὖν ἁπάντων πολὺς ἂν εἴη λόγος, περὶ δὲ τῶν μεγίστων καὶ πλεῖστον διαφερόντων ἐρέω ὥς μοι δοκεῖ ἔχειν. τὴν Ἀσίην πλεῖστον διαφέρειν φημὶ τῆς Εὐρώπης ἐς τὰς φύσιας τῶν συμπάντων τῶν τε ἐκ τῆς γῆς φυομένων καὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων. πολὺ γὰρ καλλίονα καὶ μέζονα πάντα γίνεται ἐν τῇ Ἀσίῃ, ἥ τε χώρη τῆς χώρης ἡμερωτέρη καὶ τὰ ἤθεα τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἠπιώτερα καὶ εὐοργητότερα. τὸ δὲ αἴτιον τούτων ἡ κρῆσις τῶν ὡρέων, ὅτι τοῦ ἡλίου ἐν μέσῳ τῶν ἀνατολέων κεῖται πρὸς τὴν ἠῶ τοῦ τε ψυχροῦ πορρωτέρω. τὴν δὲ αὔξησιν καὶ ἡμερότητα παρέχει πλεῖστον ἁπάντων, ὁκόταν μηδὲν ᾖ ἐπικρατέον βιαίως, ἀλλὰ παντὸς ἰσομοιρίη δυναστεύῃ. ἔχει δὲ κατὰ τὴν Ἀσίηνοὐ πανταχῇ ὁμοίως, ἀλλʼ ὅση μὲν τῆς χώρης ἐν μέσῳ κεῖται τοῦ θερμοῦ καὶ τοῦ ψυχροῦ, αὕτη μὲν εὐκαρποτάτη ἐστὶ καὶ εὐδενδροτάτη καὶ εὐδιεστάτη καὶ ὕδασι καλλίστοισι κέχρηται τοῖσί τε οὐρανίοισι καὶ τοῖς ἐκ τῆς γῆς. οὔτε γὰρ ὑπὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ ἐκκέκαυται λίην οὔτε ὑπὸ αὐχμῶν καὶ ἀνυδρίης ἀναξηραίνεται, οὔτε ὑπὸ ψύχεος βεβιασμένη οὔτε νοτία τε καὶ διάβροχός ἐστιν ὑπό τε ὄμβρων πολλῶν καὶ χιόνος· τά τε ὡραῖα αὐτόθι πολλὰ εἰκὸς γίνεσθαι, ὁκόσα τε ἀπὸ σπερμάτων καὶ ὁκόσα αὐτὴ ἡ γῆ ἀναδιδοῖ φυτά, ὧν τοῖς καρποῖσι χρέονται ἄνθρωποι, ἡμεροῦντες ἐξ ἀγρίων καὶ ἐς ἐπιτήδειον μεταφυτεύοντες· τά τε ἐντρεφόμενα κτήνεα εὐθηνεῖν εἰκός, καὶ μάλιστα τίκτειν τε πυκνότατα καὶ ἐκτρέφειν κάλλιστα· τούς τε ἀνθρώπους εὐτραφέας εἶναι καὶ τὰ εἴδεα καλλίστους καὶ μεγέθει μεγίστους καὶ ἥκιστα διαφόρους ἐς τά τε εἴδεα αὐτῶν καὶ τὰ μεγέθεα· εἰκός τε τὴν χώρην ταύτην τοῦ ἦρος ἐγγύτατα εἶναι κατὰ τὴν φύσιν καὶ τὴν μετριότητα τῶν ὡρέων. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρεῖον καὶ τὸ ταλαίπωρον καὶ τὸ ἔμπονον καὶ τὸ θυμοειδὲς οὐκ ἂν δύναιτο ἐν τοιαύτῃ φύσει ἐγγίνεσθαι οὔτε ὁμοφύλου οὔτε ἀλλοφύλου, ἀλλὰ τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀνάγκη κρατεῖν … διότι πολύμορφα γίνεται τὰ ἐν τοῖς θηρίοις.
13. But concerning those on the right hand of the summer risings of the sun as far as the Palus Maeotis (for this is the boundary of Europe and Asia), it is with them as follows: the inhabitants there differ far more from one another than those I have treated of above, owing to the differences of the seasons and the nature of the soil. But with regard to the country itself, matters are the same there as among all other men; for where the seasons undergo the greatest and most rapid changes, there the country is the wildest and most unequal; and you will find the greatest variety of mountains, forests, plains, and meadows; but where the seasons do not change much there the country is the most even; and, if one will consider it, so is it also with regard to the inhabitants; for the nature of some is like to a country covered with trees and well watered; of some, to a thin soil deficient in water; of others, to fenny and marshy places; and of some again, to a plain of bare and parched land. For the seasons which modify their natural frame of body are varied, and the greater the varieties of them the greater also will be the differences of their shapes.
13. περὶ μὲν οὖν Αἰγυπτίων καὶ Λιβύων οὕτως ἔχειν μοι δοκεῖ. περὶ δὲ τῶν ἐν δεξιῇ τοῦ ἡλίου τῶν ἀνατολέων τῶν θερινῶν μέχρι Μαιώτιδος λίμνης — οὗτος γὰρ ὅρος τῆς Εὐρώπης καὶ τῆς Ἀσίης — ὧδε ἔχει περὶ αὐτῶν· τὰ δὲ ἔθνεα ταῦτα ταύτῃ διάφορα αὐτὰ ἑωυτῶν μᾶλλόν ἐστι τῶν προδιηγημένων διὰ τὰς μεταβολὰς τῶν ὡρέων καὶ τῆς χώρης τὴν φύσιν. ἔχει δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὴν γῆν ὁμοίως ἅπερ καὶ κατὰ τοὺς ἄλλους ἀνθρώπους. ὅκου γὰρ αἱ ὧραι μεγίστας μεταβολὰς ποιέονται καὶ πυκνοτάτας, ἐκεῖ καὶ ἡ χώρη ἀγριωτάτη καὶ ἀνωμαλωτάτη ἐστί, καὶ εὑρήσεις ὄρεα τε πλεῖστα καὶ δάσεα καὶ πεδία καὶ λειμῶνας ἐόντας. ὅκου δὲ αἱ ὧραι μὴ μέγα ἀλλάσσουσιν, ἐκείνοις ἡ χώρη ὁμαλωτάτη ἐστίν. οὕτω δὲ ἔχει καὶ περὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, εἴ τις βούλεται ἐνθυμεῖσθαι. εἰσὶ γὰρ φύσιες αἱ μὲν ὄρεσιν ἐοικυῖαι δενδρώδεσί τε καὶ ἐφύδροισιν, αἱ δὲ λεπτοῖσί τε καὶ ἀνύδροις, αἱ δὲ λειμακεστέροις τε καὶ ἑλώδεσι, αἱ δὲ πεδίῳ τε καὶ ψιλῇ καὶ ξηρῇ γῇ. αἱ γὰρ ὧραι αἱ μεταλλάσσουσαι τῆς μορφῆς τὴν φύσιν εἰσὶ διάφοροι. ἢν δὲ διάφοροι ἔωσι μέγα σφέων αὐτέων, διαφοραὶ καὶ πλείονες γίνονται τοῖς εἴδεσι.
14. I will pass over the smaller differences among the nations, but will now treat of such as are great either from nature, or custom; and, first, concerning the Macrocephali. There is no other race of men which have heads in the least resembling theirs. At first, usage was the principal cause of the length of their head, but now nature cooperates with usage. They think those the most noble who have the longest heads. It is thus with regard to the usage: immediately after the child is born, and while its head is still tender, they fashion it with their hands, and constrain it to assume a lengthened shape by applying bandages and other suitable contrivances whereby the spherical form of the head is destroyed, and it is made to increase in length. Thus, at first, usage operated, so that this constitution was the result of force: but, in the course of time, it was formed naturally; so that usage had nothing to do with it; for the semen comes from all parts of the body, sound from the sound parts, and unhealthy from the unhealthy parts. If, then, children with bald heads are born to parents with bald heads; and children with blue eves to parents who have blue eyes; and if the children of parents having distorted eyes squint also for the most part; and if the same may be said of other forms of the body, what is to prevent it from happening that a child with a long head should be produced by a parent having a long head? But now these things do not happen as they did formerly, for the custom no longer prevails owing to their intercourse with other men. Thus it appears to me to be with regard to them.
14. καὶ ὁκόσα μὲν ὀλίγον διαφέρει τῶν ἐθνέων παραλείψω, ὁκόσα δὲ μεγάλα ἢ φύσει ἢ νόμῳ, ἐρέω περὶ αὐτῶν ὡς ἔχει. καὶ πρῶτον περὶ τῶν Μακροκεφάλων. τούτων γὰρ οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλο ἔθνος ὁμοίας τὰς κεφαλὰς ἔχον οὐδέν· τὴν μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴν ὁ νόμος αἰτιώτατος ἐγένετο τοῦ μήκεος τῆς κεφαλῆς, νῦν δὲ καὶ ἡ φύσις συμβάλλεται τῷ νόμῳ. τοὺς γὰρ μακροτάτην ἔχοντας τὴν κεφαλὴν γενναιοτάτους ἡγέονται. ἔχει δὲ περὶ νόμου ὧδε· τὸ παιδίον ὁκόταν γένηται τάχιστα, τὴν κεφαλὴν αὐτοῦ ἔτι ἁπαλὴν ἐοῦσαν μαλθακοῦ ἐόντος ἀναπλάσσουσι τῇσι χερσὶ καὶ ἀναγκάζουσιν ἐς τὸ μῆκος αὔξεσθαι δεσμά τε προσφέροντες καὶ τεχνήματα ἐπιτήδεια, ὑφʼ ὧν τὸ μὲν σφαιροειδὲς τῆς κεφαλῆς κακοῦται, τὸ δὲ μῆκος αὔξεται. οὕτως τὴν ἀρχὴν ὁ νόμος κατειργάσατο, ὥστε ὑπὸ βίης τοιαύτην τὴν φύσιν γενέσθαι· τοῦ δὲ χρόνου προϊόντος ἐν φύσει ἐγένετο, ὥστε τὸν νόμον μηκέτι ἀναγκάζειν. ὁ γὰρ γόνος πανταχόθεν ἔρχεται τοῦ σώματος, ἀπό τε τῶν ὑγιηρῶν ὑγιηρὸς ἀπό τε τῶν νοσερῶν νοσερός. εἰ οὖν γίνονται ἔκ τε φαλακρῶν φαλακροὶ καὶ ἐκ γλαυκῶν γλαυκοὶ καὶ ἐκ διεστραμμένων στρεβλοὶ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πλῆθος, καὶ περὶ τῆς ἄλλης μορφῆς ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος, τί κωλύει καὶ ἐκ μακροκεφάλου μακροκέφαλον γίνεσθαι; νῦν δὲ ὁμοίως οὐκέτι γίνονται ὡς πρότερον· ὁ γὰρ νόμος οὐκέτι ἰσχύει διὰ τὴν ὁμιλίην τῶν ἀνθρώπων.
15. As to the inhabitants of Phasis, their country is fenny, warm, humid, and wooded; copious and severe rains occur there at all seasons; and the life of the inhabitants is spent among the fens; for their dwellings are constructed of wood and reeds, and are erected amidst the waters; they seldom practice walking either to the city or the market, but sail about, up and down, in canoes constructed out of single trees, for there are many canals there. They drink the hot and stagnant waters, both when rendered putrid by the sun, and when swollen with rains. The Phasis itself is the most stagnant of all rivers, and runs the smoothest; all the fruits which spring there are unwholesome, feeble and imperfect growth, owing to the redundance of water, and on this account they do not ripen, for much vapor from the waters overspreads the country. For these reasons the Phasians have shapes different from those of all other men; for they are large in stature, and of a very gross habit of body, so that not a joint nor vein is visible; in color they are sallow, as if affected with jaundice. Of all men they have the roughest voices, from their breathing an atmosphere which is not clear, but misty and humid; they are naturally rather languid in supporting bodily fatigue. The seasons undergo but little change either as to heat or cold; their winds for the most part are southerly, with the exception of one peculiar to the country, which sometimes blows strong, is violent and hot, and is called by them the wind cenchron. The north wind scarcely reaches them, and when it does blow it is weak and gentle. Thus it is with regard to the different nature and shape of the inhabitants of Asia and Europe.
15. περὶ μὲν οὖν τούτων οὕτως ἔχειν μοι δοκεῖ. περὶ δὲ τῶν ἐν Φάσει· ἡ χώρη ἐκείνη ἑλώδης ἐστὶ καὶ θερμὴ καὶ ὑδατεινὴ καὶ δασεῖα, ὄμβροι τε αὐτόθι γίνονται πᾶσαν ὥρην πολλοί τε καὶ ἰσχυροί· ἥ τε δίαιτα τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐν τοῖς ἕλεσίν ἐστιν, τά τε οἰκήματα ξύλινα καὶ καλάμινα ἐν τοῖς ὕδασι μεμηχανημένα· ὀλίγῃ τε χρέονται βαδίσει κατὰ τὴν πόλιν καὶ τὸ ἐμπόριον, ἀλλὰ μονοξύλοις διαπλέουσιν ἄνω καὶ κάτω· διώρυγες γὰρ πολλαί εἰσι. τὰ δὲ ὕδατα θερμὰ καὶ στάσιμα πίνουσιν ὑπό τε τοῦ ἡλίου σηπόμενα καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν ὄμβρων ἐπαυξόμενα. αὐτός τε ὁ Φᾶσις στασιμώτατος πάντων τῶν ποταμῶν καὶ ῥέων ἠπιώτατα. οἵ τε καρποὶ οἱ γινόμενοι αὐτόθι πάντες ἀναλδέες εἰσὶ καὶ τεθηλυσμένοι καὶ ἀτελέες ὑπὸ πολυπληθείης τοῦ ὕδατος· διὸ καὶ οὐ πεπαίνονται. ἠήρ τε πολὺς κατέχει τὴν χώρην ἀπὸ τῶν ὑδάτων. διὰ ταύτας δὴ τὰς προφάσιας τὰ εἴδεα ἀπηλλαγμένα τῶν λοιπῶν ἀνθρώπων ἔχουσιν οἱ Φασιηνοί· τά τε γὰρ μεγέθεα μεγάλοι, τὰ πάχεα δʼ ὑπερπάχητες, ἄρθρον τε κατάδηλον οὐδὲν οὐδὲ φλέψ· τήν τε χροιὴν ὠχρὴν ἔχουσιν ὥσπερ ὑπὸ ἰκτέρου ἐχόμενοι· φθέγγονταί τε βαρύτατον ἀνθρώπων, τῷ ἠέρι χρεώμενοι οὐ λαμπρῷ, ἀλλὰ νοτώδει καὶ θολερῷ· πρός τε τὸ ταλαιπωρεῖν τὸ σῶμα ἀργότεροι πεφύκασιν. αἵ τε ὧραι οὐ πολὺ μεταλλάσσουσιν οὔτε πρὸς τὸ πνῖγος οὔτε πρὸς τὸ ψῦχος. τά τε πνεύματα τὰ πολλὰ νότια πλὴν αὔρης μιῆς ἐπιχωρίης. αὕτη δὲ πνεῖ ἐνίοτε βίαιος καὶ χαλεπὴ καὶ θερμή· καὶ κέγχρονα ὀνομάζουσι τοῦτο τὸ πνεῦμα. ὁ δὲ βορέης οὐ σφόδρα ἀφικνεῖται· ὁκόταν δὲ πνέῃ, ἀσθενὴς καὶ βληχρός.
16. And with regard to the pusillanimity and cowardice of the inhabitants, the principal reason the Asiatics are more unwarlike and of gentler disposition than the Europeans is, the nature of the seasons, which do not undergo any great changes either to heat or cold, or the like; for there is neither excitement of the understanding nor any strong change of the body whereby the temper might be ruffled and they be roused to inconsiderate emotion and passion, rather than living as they do always in the state. It is changes of all kinds which arouse understanding of mankind, and do not allow them to get into a torpid condition. For these reasons, it appears to me, the Asiatic race is feeble, and further, owing to their laws; for monarchy prevails in the greater part of Asia, and where men are not their own masters nor independent, but are the slaves of others, it is not a matter of consideration with them how they may acquire military discipline, but how they may seem not to be warlike, for the dangers are not equally shared, since they must serve as soldiers, perhaps endure fatigue, and die for their masters, far from their children, their wives, and other friends; and whatever noble and manly actions they may perform lead only to the aggrandizement of their masters, whilst the fruits which they reap are dangers and death; and, in addition to all this, the lands of such persons must be laid waste by the enemy and want of culture. Thus, then, if any one be naturally warlike and courageous, his disposition will be changed by the institutions. As a strong proof of all this, such Greeks or barbarians in Asia as are not under a despotic form of government, but are independent, and enjoy the fruits of their own labors, are of all others the most warlike; for these encounter dangers on their own account, bear the prizes of their own valor, and in like manner endure the punishment of their own cowardice. And you will find the Asiatics differing from one another, for some are better and others more dastardly; of these differences, as I stated before, the changes of the seasons are the cause. Thus it is with Asia.
16. καὶ περὶ μὲν τῆς φύσιος τῆς διαφορῆς καὶ τῆς μορφῆς τῶν ἐν τῇ Ἀσίῃ καὶ τῇ Εὐρώπῃ οὕτως ἔχει. περὶ δὲ τῆς ἀθυμίης τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τῆς ἀνανδρείης, ὅτι ἀπολεμώτεροί εἰσι τῶν Εὐρωπαίων οἱ Ἀσιηνοὶ καὶ ἡμερώτεροι τὰ ἤθεα αἱ ὧραι αἴτιαι μάλιστα, οὐ μεγάλας τὰς μεταβολὰς ποιεύμεναι οὔτε ἐπὶ τὸ θερμὸν οὔτε ἐπὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, ἀλλὰ παραπλησίως. οὐ γὰρ γίνονται ἐκπλήξιες τῆς γνώμης οὔτε μετάστασις ἰσχυρὴ τοῦ σώματος, ἀφʼ ὅτων εἰκὸς τὴν ὀργὴν ἀγριοῦσθαί τε καὶ τοῦ ἀγνώμονος καὶ θυμοειδέος μετέχειν μᾶλλον ἢ ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ αἰεὶ ἐόντα. αἱ γὰρ μεταβολαί εἰσι τῶν πάντων αἱ ἐπεγείρουσαι τὴν γνώμην τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ οὐκ ἐῶσαι ἀτρεμίζειν. διὰ ταύτας ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ τὰς προφάσιας ἄναλκες εἶναι τὸ γένος τὸ Ἀσιηνὸν καὶ προσέτι διὰ τοὺς νόμους. τῆς γὰρ Ἀσίης τὰ πολλὰ βασιλεύεται. ὅκου δὲ μὴ αὐτοὶ ἑωυτῶν εἰσι καρτεροὶ οἱ ἄνθρωποι μηδὲ αὐτόνομοι, ἀλλὰ δεσπόζονται, οὐ περὶ τούτου αὐτοῖσιν ὁ λόγος ἐστίν, ὅκως τὰ πολέμια ἀσκήσωσιν, ἀλλʼ ὅκως μὴ δόξωσι μάχιμοι εἶναι. οἱ γὰρ κίνδυνοι οὐχ ὁμοῖοί εἰσι. τοὺς μὲν γὰρ στρατεύεσθαι εἰκὸς καὶ ταλαιπωρεῖν καὶ ἀποθνῄσκειν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ὑπὲρ τῶν δεσποτέων ἀπό τε παιδίων καὶ γυναικὸς ἐόντας καὶ τῶν λοιπῶν φίλων. καὶ ὁκόσα μὲν ἂν χρηστὰ καὶ ἀνδρεῖα ἐργάσωνται, οἱ δεσπόται ἀπʼ αὐτῶν αὔξονταί τε καὶ ἐκφύονται, τοὺς δὲ κινδύνους καὶ θανάτους αὐτοὶ καρποῦνται. ἔτι δὲ πρὸς τούτοισι τῶν τοιούτων ἀνθρώπων ἀνάγκη ἐρημοῦσθαι τὴν γῆν ὑπό τε πολεμίων καὶ ἀργίης, ὥστε καὶ εἴ τις φύσει πέφυκεν ἀνδρεῖος καὶ εὔψυχος, ἀποτρέπεσθαι τὴν γνώμην ὑπὸ τῶν νόμων. μέγα δὲ τεκμήριον τούτων· ὁκόσοι γὰρ ἐν τῇ Ἀσίῃ Ἕλληνες ἢ βάρβαροι μὴ δεσπόζονται, ἀλλʼ αὐτόνομοί εἰσι καὶ ἑωυτοῖσι ταλαιπωρεῦσιν, οὗτοι μαχιμώτατοί εἰσι πάντων· τοὺς γὰρ κινδύνους ἑωυτῶν πέρι κινδυνεύουσι, καὶ τῆς ἀνδρείης αὐτοὶ τὰ ἆθλα φέρονται καὶ τῆς δειλίης τὴν ζημίην ὡσαύτως. εὑρήσεις δὲ καὶ τοὺς Ἀσιηνοὺς διαφέροντας αὐτοὺς ἑωυτῶν, τοὺς μὲν βελτίονας, τοὺς δὲ φαυλοτέρους ἐόντας. τούτων δὲ αἱ μεταβολαὶ αἴτιαι τῶν ὡρέων, ὥσπερ μοι εἴρηται ἐν τοῖς προτέροισι.
17. In Europe there is a Scythian race, called Sauromatae, which inhabits the confines of the Palus Maeotis, and is different from all other races. Their women mount on horseback, use the bow, and throw the javelin from their horses, and fight with their enemies as long as they are virgins; and they do not lay aside their virginity until they kill three of their enemies, nor have any connection with men until they perform the sacrifices according to law. Whoever takes to herself a husband, gives up riding on horseback unless the necessity of a general expedition obliges her. They have no right breast; for while still of a tender age their mothers heat strongly a copper instrument constructed for this very purpose, and apply it to the right breast, which is burnt up, and its development being arrested, all the strength and fullness are determined to the right shoulder and arm.
17. καὶ περὶ μὲν τῶν ἐν τῇ Ἀσίῃ οὕτως ἔχει. ἐν δὲ τῇ Εὐρώπῃ ἔστιν ἔθνος Σκυθικόν, ὃ περὶ τὴν λίμνην οἰκεῖ τὴν Μαιῶτιν διαφέρον τῶν ἐθνέων τῶν ἄλλων. Σαυρομάται καλεῦνται. τούτων αἱ γυναῖκες ἱππάζονταί τε καὶ τοξεύουσι καὶ ἀκοντίζουσιν ἀπὸ τῶν ἵππων καὶ μάχονται τοῖς πολεμίοις, ἕως ἂν παρθένοι ἔωσιν. οὐκ ἀποπαρθενεύονται δέ, μέχρι ἂν τῶν πολεμίων τρεῖς ἀποκτείνωσι, καὶ οὐ πρότερον συνοικέουσιν ἤπερ τὰ ἱερὰ θύσωσιν τὰ ἔννομα. ἣ δʼ ἂν ἄνδρα ἑωυτῇ ἄρηται, παύεται ἱππαζομένη, ἕως ἂν μὴ ἀνάγκη καταλάβῃ παγκοίνου στρατείης. τὸν δεξιὸν δὲ μαζὸν οὐκ ἔχουσι. παιδίοις γὰρ ἐοῦσιν ἔτι νηπίοις αἱ μητέρες χαλκίον τετεχνημένον ἐπʼ αὐτῷ τούτῳ διάπυρον ποιέουσαι πρὸς τὸν μαζὸν τιθέασι τὸν δεξιὸν καὶ ἐπικαίεται, ὥστε τὴν αὔξησιν φθείρεσθαι, ἐς δὲ τὸν δεξιὸν ὦμον καὶ βραχίονα πᾶσαν τὴν ἰσχὺν καὶ τὸ πλῆθος ἐκδιδόναι.
18. As the other Scythians have a peculiarity of shape, and do not resemble any other, the same observation applies to the Egyptians, only that the latter are oppressed by heat and the former by cold. What is called the Scythian desert is a prairie, rich in meadows, high-lying, and well watered; for the rivers which carry off the water from the plains are large. There live those Scythians which are called Nomades, because they have no houses, but live in wagons. The smallest of these wagons have four wheels, but some have six; they are covered in with felt, and they are constructed in the manner of houses, some having but a single apartment, and some three; they are proof against rain, snow, and winds. The wagons are drawn by yokes of oxen, some of two and others of three, and all without horns, for they have no horns, owing to the cold. In these wagons the women live, but the men are carried about on horses, and the sheep, oxen, and horses accompany them; and they remain on any spot as long as there is provender for their cattle, and when that fails they migrate to some other place. They eat boiled meat, and drink the milk of mares, and also eat hippace, which is cheese prepared from the milk of the mare. Such is their mode of life and their customs.
18. περὶ δὲ τῶν λοιπῶν Σκυθέων τῆς μορφῆς, ὅτι αὐτοὶ αὐτοῖσιν ἐοίκασι καὶ οὐδαμῶς ἄλλοις, ωὑτὸς λόγος καὶ περὶ τῶν Αἰγυπτίων, πλὴν ὅτι οἱ μὲν ὑπὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ εἰσι βεβιασμένοι, οἱ δὲ ὑπὸ τοῦ ψυχροῦ. ἡ δὲ Σκυθέων ἐρημίη καλευμένη πεδιάς ἐστι καὶ λειμακώδης καὶ ψιλὴ καὶ ἔνυδρος μετρίως. ποταμοὶ γάρ εἰσι μεγάλοι, οἳ ἐξοχετεύουσι τὸ ὕδωρ ἐκ τῶν πεδίων. ἐνταῦθα καὶ οἱ Σκύθαι διαιτεῦνται, Νομάδες δὲ καλεῦνται, ὅτι οὐκ ἔστιν οἰκήματα, ἀλλʼ ἐν ἁμάξῃσιν οἰκεῦσιν. αἱ δὲ ἅμαξαί εἰσιν αἱ μὲν ἐλάχισται τετράκυκλοι, αἱ δὲ ἑξάκυκλοι· αὗται δὲ πίλοις περιπεφραγμέναι· εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ τετεχνασμέναι ὥσπερ οἰκήματα τὰ μὲν διπλᾶ, τὰ δὲ τριπλᾶ. ταῦτα δὲ καὶ στεγνὰ πρὸς ὕδωρ καὶ πρὸς χιόνα καὶ πρὸς τὰ πνεύματα. τὰς δὲ ἁμάξας ἕλκουσι ζεύγεα τὰς μὲν δύο, τὰς δὲ τρία βοῶν κέρως ἄτερ. οὐ γὰρ ἔχουσι κέρατα ὑπὸ τοῦ ψύχεος. ἐν ταύτῃσι μὲν οὖν τῇσιν ἁμάξῃσιν αἱ γυναῖκες διαιτεῦνται. αὐτοὶ δʼ ἐφʼ ἵππων ὀχεῦνται οἱ ἄνδρες. ἕπονται δὲ αὐτοῖς καὶ τὰ πρόβατα τὰ ἐόντα καὶ αἱ βόες καὶ οἱ ἵπποι. μένουσι δʼ ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ τοσοῦτον χρόνον, ὅσον ἂν ἀποχρῇ αὐτοῖσι τοῖς κτήνεσιν ὁ χόρτος· ὁκόταν δὲ μηκέτι, ἐς ἑτέρην χώρην ἔρχονται. αὐτοὶ δʼ ἐσθίουσι κρέα ἑφθὰ καὶ πίνουσι γάλα ἵππων. καὶ ἱππάκην τρώγουσι· τοῦτο δʼ ἐστὶ τυρὸς ἵππων.
19. In respect of the seasons and figure of body, the Scythian race, like the Egyptian, have a uniformity of resemblance, different from all other nations; they are by no means prolific, and the wild beasts which are indigenous there are small in size and few in number, for the country lies under the Northern Bears, and the Rhiphaean mountains, whence the north wind blows; the sun comes very near to them only when in the summer solstice, and warms them but for a short period, and not strongly; and the winds blowing from the hot regions of the earth do not reach them, or but seldom, and with little force; but the winds from the north always blow, congealed, as they are, by the snow, ice, and much water, for these never leave the mountains, which are thereby rendered uninhabitable. A thick fog covers the plains during the day, and amidst it they live, so that winter may be said to be always present with them; or, if they have summer, it is only for a few days, and the heat is not very strong. Their plains are high-lying and naked, not crowned with mountains, but extending upwards under the Northern Bears. The wild beasts there are not large, but such as can be sheltered underground; for the cold of winter and the barrenness of the country prevent their growth, and because they have no covert nor shelter. The changes of the seasons, too, are not great nor violent, for, in fact, they change gradually; and therefore their figures resemble one another, as they all equally use the same food, and the same clothing summer and winter, respiring a humid and dense atmosphere, and drinking water from snow and ice; neither do they make any laborious exertions, for neither body nor mind is capable of enduring fatigue when the changes of the seasons are not great. For these reasons their shapes are gross and fleshy, with ill-marked joints, of a humid temperament, and deficient in tone: the internal cavities, and especially those of the intestines, are full of humors; for the belly cannot possibly be dry in such a country, with such a constitution and in such a climate; but owing to their fat, and the absence of hairs from their bodies, their shapes resemble one another, the males being all alike, and so also with the women; for the seasons being of a uniform temperature, no corruption or deterioration takes place in the concretion of the semen, unless from some violent cause, or from disease.
19. τὰ μὲν ἐς τὴν δίαιταν αὐτῶν οὕτως ἔχει καὶ τοὺς νόμους· περὶ δὲ τῶν ὡρέων καὶ τῆς μορφῆς, ὅτι πολὺ ἀπήλλακται τῶν λοιπῶν ἀνθρώπων τὸ Σκυθικὸν γένος καὶ ἔοικεν αὐτὸ ἑωυτῷ ὥσπερ τὸ Αἰγύπτιον καὶ ἥκιστα πολύγονόν ἐστι, καὶ ἡ χώρη ἐλάχιστα θηρία τρέφει κατὰ μέγεθος καὶ πλῆθος. κεῖται γὰρ ὑπʼ αὐτῇσι τῇσιν ἄρκτοις καὶ τοῖς ὄρεσι τοῖς Ῥιπαίοισιν, ὅθεν ὁ βορέης πνεῖ. ὅ τε ἥλιος τελευτῶν ἐγγύτατα γίνεται, ὁκόταν ἐπὶ τὰς θερινὰς ἔλθῃ περιόδους, καὶ τότε ὀλίγον χρόνον θερμαίνει καὶ οὐ σφόδρα· τὰ δὲ πνεύματα τὰ ἀπὸ τῶν θερμῶν πνέοντα οὐκ ἀφικνεῖται, ἢν μὴ ὀλιγάκις καὶ ἀσθενέα, ἀλλʼ ἀπὸ τῶν ἄρκτων αἰεὶ πνέουσι πνεύματα ψυχρὰ ἀπό τε χιόνος καὶ κρυστάλλου καὶ ὑδάτων πολλῶν. οὐδέποτε δὲ τὰ ὄρεα ἐκλείπει· ἀπὸ τούτων δὲ δυσοίκητά ἐστιν. ἠήρ τε κατέχει πολὺς τῆς ἡμέρης τὰ πεδία, καὶ ἐν τούτοισι διαιτεῦνται· ὥστε τὸν μὲν χειμῶνα αἰεὶ εἶναι, τὸ δὲ θέρος ὀλίγας ἡμέρας καὶ ταύτας μὴ λίην. μετέωρα γὰρ τὰ πεδία καὶ ψιλὰ καὶ οὐκ ἐστεφάνωνται ὄρεσιν, ἀλλʼ ἢ ἀνάντεα ἀπὸ τῶν ἄρκτων· αὐτόθι καὶ τὰ θηρία οὐ γίνεται μεγάλα, ἀλλʼ οἷά τέ ἐστιν ὑπὸ γῆν σκεπάζεσθαι. ὁ γὰρ χειμὼν κωλύει καὶ τῆς γῆς ἡ ψιλότης, ὅτι οὐκ ἔστιν ἀλέη οὐδὲ σκέπη. αἱ δὲ μεταβολαὶ τῶν ὡρέων οὔκ εἰσι μεγάλαι οὐδὲ ἰσχυραί, ἀλλʼ ὁμοῖαι καὶ ὀλίγον μεταλλάσσουσαι· διότι καὶ τὰ εἴδεα ὁμοῖοι αὐτοὶ ἑωυτοῖς εἰσι σίτῳ τε χρεώμενοι αἰεὶ ὁμοίῳ ἐσθῆτί τε τῇ αὐτῇ καὶ θέρεος καὶ χειμῶνος, τόν τε ἠέρα ὑδατεινὸν ἕλκοντες καὶ παχύν, τά τε ὕδατα πίνοντες ἀπὸ χιόνος καὶ παγετῶν, τοῦ τε ταλαιπώρου ἀπεόντες. οὐ γὰρ οἷόν τε τὸ σῶμα ταλαιπωρεῖσθαι οὐδὲ τὴν ψυχήν, ὅκου μεταβολαὶ μὴ γίνονται ἰσχυραί. διὰ ταύτας τὰς ἀνάγκας τὰ εἴδεα αὐτῶν παχέα ἐστὶ καὶ σαρκώδεα καὶ ἄναρθρα καὶ ὑγρὰ καὶ ἄτονα, αἵ τε κοιλίαι ὑγρόταται πασέων κοιλιῶν αἱ κάτω. οὐ γὰρ οἷόν τε νηδὺν ἀναξηραίνεσθαι ἐν τοιαύτῃ χώρῃ καὶ φύσει καὶ ὥρης καταστάσει, ἀλλὰ διὰ πιμελήν τε καὶ ψιλὴν τὴν σάρκα τά †τε† εἴδεα ἔοικεν ἀλλήλοισι τά τε ἄρσενα τοῖς ἄρσεσι καὶ τὰ θήλεα τοῖς θήλεσι. τῶν γὰρ ὡρέων παραπλησίων ἐουσέων φθοραὶ οὐκ ἐγγίνονται οὐδὲ κακώσιες ἐν τῇ τοῦ γόνου συμπήξει, ἢν μή τινος ἀνάγκης βιαίου τύχῃ ἢ νούσου.
20. I Will give you a strong proof of the humidity (laxity?) of their constitutions. You will find the greater part of the Scythians, and all the Nomades, with marks of the cautery on their shoulders, arms, wrists, breasts, hip-joints, and loins, and that for no other reason but the humidity and flabbiness of their constitution, for they can neither strain with their bows, nor launch the javelin from their shoulder owing to their humidity and atony: but when they are burnt, much of the humidity in their joints is dried up, and they become better braced, better fed, and their joints get into a more suitable condition. They are flabby and squat at first, because, as in Egypt, they are not swathed (?); and then they pay no attention to horsemanship, so that they may be adepts at it; and because of their sedentary mode of life; for the males, when they cannot be carried about on horseback, sit the most of their time in the wagon, and rarely practise walking, because of their frequent migrations and shiftings of situation; and as to the women, it is amazing how flabby and sluggish they are. The Scythian race are tawny from the cold, and not from the intense heat of the sun, for the whiteness of the skin is parched by the cold, and becomes tawny.
20. μέγα δὲ τεκμήριον ἐς τὴν ὑγρότητα παρέξομαι. Σκυθέων γὰρ τοὺς πολλούς, ἅπαντας ὅσοι Νομάδες, εὑρήσεις κεκαυμένους τούς τε ὤμους καὶ τοὺς βραχίονας καὶ τοὺς καρποὺς τῶν χειρῶν καὶ τὰ στήθεα καὶ τὰ ἰσχία καὶ τὴν ὀσφῦν διʼ ἄλλʼ οὐδὲν ἢ διὰ τὴν ὑγρότητα τῆς φύσιος καὶ τὴν μαλακίην. οὐ γὰρ δύνανται οὔτε τοῖς τόξοις συντείνειν οὔτε τῷ ἀκοντίῳ ἐμπίπτειν τῷ ὤμῳ ὑπὸ ὑγρότητος καὶ ἀτονίης. ὁκόταν δὲ καυθέωσιν, ἀναξηραίνεται ἐκ τῶν ἄρθρων τὸ πολὺ τοῦ ὑγροῦ, καὶ ἐντονώτερα μάλλον γίνεται καὶ τροφιμώτερα καὶ ἠρθρωμένα τὰ σώματα μᾶλλον. ῥοϊκὰ δὲ γίνεται καὶ πλατέα, πρῶτον μὲν ὅτι οὐ σπαργανοῦνται ὥσπερ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ οὐδὲ νομίζουσι διὰ τὴν ἱππασιην, ὅκως ἂν εὔεδροι ἔωσιν· ἔπειτα δὲ διὰ τὴν ἕδρην· τά τε γὰρ ἄρσενα, ἕως ἂν οὐχ οἷά τε ἐφʼ ἵππου ὀχεῖσθαι, τὸ πολὺ τοῦ χρόνου κάθηνται ἐν τῇ ἁμάξῃ καὶ βραχὺ τῇ βαδίσει χρέονται διὰ τὰς μεταναστάσιας καὶ περιελάσιας· τὰ δὲ θήλεα θαυμαστὸν οἷον ῥοϊκά ἑστι τε καὶ βραδέα τὰ εἴδεα. πυρρὸν δὲ τὸ γένος ἐστὶ τὸ Σκυθικὸν διὰ τὸ ψῦχος, οὐκ ἐπιγινομένου ὀξέος τοῦ ἡλίου. ὑπὸ δὲ τοῦ ψύχεος ἡ λευκότης ἐπι καίεται καὶ γίνεται πυρρή.
21. It is impossible that persons of such a constitution could be prolific, for, with the man, the sexual desires are not strong, owing to the laxity of his constitution, the softness and coldness of his belly, from all which causes it is little likely that a man should be given to venery; and besides, from being jaded by exercise on horseback, the men become weak in their desires. On the part of the men these are the causes; but on that of the women, they are embonpoint and humidity; for the womb cannot take in the semen, nor is the menstrual discharge such as it should be, but scanty and at too long intervals; and the mouth of the womb is shut up by fat and does not admit the semen; and, moreover, they themselves are indolent and fat, and their bellies cold and soft. From these causes the Scythian race is not prolific. Their female servants furnish a strong proof of this; for they no sooner have connection with a man than they prove with child, owing to their active course of life and the slenderness of body.
21. πολύγονον δὲ οὐχ οἷόν τε εἶναι φύσιν τοιαύτην. οὔτε γὰρ τῷ ἀνδρὶ ἡ ἐπιθυμίη τῆς μείξιος γίνεται πολλὴ διὰ τὴν ὑγρότητα τῆς φύσιος καὶ τῆς κοιλίης τὴν μαλθακότητά τε καὶ τὴν ψυχρότητα, ἀφʼ ὅτων ἥκιστα εἰκὸς ἄνδρα οἷόν τε λαγνεύειν· καὶ ἔτι ὑπὸ τῶν ἵππων αἰεὶ κοπτόμενοι ἀσθενέες γίνονται ἐς τὴν μεῖξιν. τοῖσι μὲν ἀνδράσιν αὗται αἱ προφάσιες γίνονται, τῇσι δὲ γυναιξὶν ἥ τε πιότης τῆς σαρκὸς καὶ ὑγρότης· οὐ γὰρ δύνανται ἔτι συναρπάζειν αἱ μῆτραι τὸν γόνον· οὔτε γὰρ ἐπιμήνιος κάθαρσις αὐτῇσι γίνεται ὡς χρεών ἐστιν, ἀλλʼ ὀλίγον καὶ διὰ χρόνου, τό τε στόμα τῶν μητρέων ὑπὸ πιμελῆς συγκλείεται καὶ οὐχ ὑποδέχεται τὸν γόνον· αὐταί τε ἀταλαίπωροι καὶ πίεραι καὶ αἱ κοιλίαι ψυχραὶ καὶ μαλθακαί. ὑπὸ τούτων τῶν ἀναγκέων οὐ πολύγονόν ἐστι τὸ γένος τὸ Σκυθικόν. μέγα δὲ τεκμήριον αἱ οἰκέτιδες ποιέουσιν· οὐ γὰρ φθάνουσι παρὰ ἄνδρα ἀφικνεύμεναι καὶ ἐν γαστρὶ ἴσχουσιν διὰ τὴν ταλαιπωρίην καὶ ἰσχνότητα τῆς σαρκός.
22. And, in addition to these, there are many eunuchs among the Scythians, who perform female work, and speak like women. Such persons are called effeminates. The inhabitants of the country attribute the cause of their impotence to a god, and venerate and worship such persons, every one dreading that the like might befall himself; but to me it appears that such affections are just as much divine as all others are, and that no one disease is either more divine or more human than another, but that all are alike divine, for that each has its own nature, and that no one arises without a natural cause. But I will explain how I think that the affection takes its rise. From continued exercise on horseback they are seized with chronic defluxions in their joints owing to their legs always hanging down below their horses; they afterwards become lame and stiff at the hip-joint, such of them, at least, as are severely attacked with it. They treat themselves in this way: when the disease is commencing, they open the vein behind either ear, and when the blood flows, sleep, from feebleness, seizes them, and afterwards they awaken, some in good health and others not. To me it appears that the semen is altered by this treatment, for there are veins behind the ears which, if cut, induce impotence; now, these veins would appear to me to be cut. Such persons afterwards, when they go in to women and cannot have connection with them, at first do not think much about it, but remain quiet; but when, after making the attempt two, three, or more times, they succeed no better, fancying they have committed some offence against the god whom they blame for the affection, they put on female attire, reproach themselves for effeminacy, play the part of women, and perform the same work as women do. This the rich among the Scythians endure, not the basest, but the most noble and powerful, owing to their riding on horseback; for the poor are less affected, as they do not ride on horses. And yet, if this disease had been more divine than the others, it ought not to have befallen the most noble and the richest of the Scythians alone, but all alike, or rather those who have little, as not being able to pay honors to the gods, if, indeed, they delight in being thus rewarded by men, and grant favors in return; for it is likely that the rich sacrifice more to the gods, and dedicate more votive offerings, inasmuch as they have wealth, and worship the gods; whereas the poor, from want, do less in this way, and, moreover, upbraid the gods for not giving them wealth, so that those who have few possessions were more likely to bear the punishments of these offences than the rich. But, as I formerly said, these affections are divine just as much as others, for each springs from a natural cause, and this disease arises among the Scythians from such a cause as I have stated. But it attacks other men in like manner, for whenever men ride much and very frequently on horseback, then many are affected with rheums in the joints, sciatica, and gout, and they are inept at venery. But these complaints befall the Scythians, and they are the most impotent of men for the aforesaid causes, and because they always wear breeches, and spend the most of their time on horseback, so as not to touch their privy parts with the hands, and from the cold and fatigue they forget the sexual desire, and do not make the attempt until after they have lost their virility. Thus it is with the race of the Scythians.
22. ἔτι τε πρὸς τούτοισιν εὐνουχίαι γίνονται οἱ πλεῖστοι ἐν Σκύθῃσι καὶ γυναικεῖα ἐργάζονται καὶ ὡς αἱ γυναῖκες διαιτεῦνται διαλέγονταί τε ὁμοίως· καλεῦνταί τε οἱ τοιοῦτοι Ἀναριεῖς. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἐπιχώριοι τὴν αἰτίην προστιθέασι θεῷ καὶ σέβονται τούτους τοὺς ἀνθρώπους καὶ προσκυνέουσι, δεδοικότες περὶ ἑωυτῶν ἕκαστοι. ἐμοὶ δὲ καὶ αὐτῷ δοκεῖ ταῦτα τὰ πάθεα θεῖα εἶναι καὶ τἄλλα πάντα καὶ οὐδὲν ἕτερον ἑτέρου θειότερον οὐδὲ ἀνθρωπινώτερον, ἀλλὰ πάντα ὁμοῖα καὶ πάντα θεῖα. ἕκαστον δὲ αὐτῶν ἔχει φύσιν τὴν ἑωυτοῦ καὶ οὐδὲν ἄνευ φύσιος γίνεται. καὶ τοῦτο τὸ πάθος ὥς μοι δοκεῖ γίνεσθαι φράσω· ὑπὸ τῆς ἱππασίης αὐτοὺς κέδματα λαμβάνει, ἅτε αἰεὶ κρεμαμένων ἀπὸ τῶν ἵππων τοῖς ποσίν· ἔπειτα ἀποχωλοῦνται καὶ ἑλκοῦνται τὰ ἰσχία, οἳ ἂν σφόδρα νοσήσωσιν. ἰῶνται δὲ σφᾶς αὐτοὺς τρόπῳ τοιῷδε. ὁκόταν γὰρ ἄρχηται ἡ νοῦσος, ὄπισθεν τοῦ ὠτὸς ἑκατέρου φλέβα τάμνουσιν. ὁκόταν δὲ ἀπορρυῇ τὸ αἷμα, ὕπνος ὑπολαμβάνει ὑπὸ ἀσθενείης καὶ καθεύδουσιν. ἔπειτα ἀνεγείρονται, οἱ μέν τινες ὑγιέες ἐόντες, οἱ δʼ οὔ. ἐμοὶ μὲν οὖν δοκεῖ ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ ἰήσει διαφθείρεσθαι ὁ γόνος. εἰσὶ γὰρ παρὰ τὰ ὦτα φλέβες, ἃς ἐάν τις ἐπιτάμῃ, ἄγονοι γίνονται οἱ ἐπιτμηθέντες. ταύτας τοίνυν μοι δοκέουσι τὰς φλέβας ἐπιτάμνειν. οἱ δὲ μετὰ ταῦτα ἐπειδὰν ἀφίκωνται παρὰ γυναῖκας καὶ μὴ οἷοί τʼ ἔωσι χρῆσθαί σφισιν, τὸ πρῶτον οὐκ ἐνθυμεῦνται, ἀλλʼ ἡσυχίην ἔχουσι. ὁκόταν δὲ δὶς καὶ τρὶς καὶ πλεονάκις αὐτοῖσι πειρωμένοισι μηδὲν ἀλλοιότερον ἀποβαίνῃ, νομίσαντές τι ἡμαρτηκέναι τῷ θεῷ, ὃν ἐπαιτιῶνται, ἐνδύονται στολὴν γυναικείην καταγνόντες ἑωυτῶν ἀνανδρείην. γυναικίζουσί τε καὶ ἐργάζονται μετὰ τῶν γυναικῶν ἃ καὶ ἐκεῖναι. τοῦτο δὲ πάσχουσι Σκυθέων οἱ πλούσιοι, οὐχ οἱ κάκιστοι ἀλλʼ οἱ εὐγενέστατοι καὶ ἰσχὺν πλείστην κεκτημένοι, διὰ τὴν ἱππασίην, οἱ δὲ πένητες ἧσσον· οὐ γὰρ ἱππάζονται. καίτοι ἐχρῆν, ἐπεὶ θειότερον τοῦτο τὸ νόσευμα τῶν λοιπῶν ἐστιν, οὐ τοῖς γενναιοτάτοις τῶν Σκυθέων καὶ τοῖς πλουσιωτάτοις προσπίπτειν μούνοις, ἀλλὰ τοῖς ἅπασιν ὁμοίως, καὶ μᾶλλον τοῖσιν ὀλίγα κεκτημένοισιν, εἰ δὴ τιμώμενοι χαίρουσιν οἱ θεοὶ καί θαυμαζόμενοι ὑπʼ ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἀντὶ τούτων χάριτας ἀποδιδόασιν. εἰκὸς γὰρ τοὺς μὲν πλουσίους θύειν πολλὰ τοῖς θεοῖς καὶ ἀνατιθέναι ἀναθήματα ἐόντων χρημάτων πολλῶν καὶ τιμᾶν, τοὺς δὲ πένητας ἧσσον διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν, ἔπειτα καὶ ἐπιμεμφομένους ὅτι οὐ διδόασι χρήματα αὐτοῖσιν, ὥστε τῶν τοιούτων ἁμαρτιῶν τὰς ζημίας τοὺς ὀλίγα κεκτημένους φέρειν μᾶλλον ἢ τοὺς πλουσίους. ἀλλὰ γάρ, ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερον ἔλεξα, θεῖα μὲν καὶ ταῦτά ἐστιν ὁμοίως τοῖς ἄλλοις· γίνεται δὲ κατὰ φύσιν ἕκαστα. καὶ ἡ τοιαύτη νοῦσος ἀπὸ τοιαύτης προφάσιος τοῖς Σκύθῃσι γίνεται οἵην εἴρηκα. ἔχει δὲ καὶ κατὰ τοὺς λοιποὺς ἀνθρώπους ὁμοίως. ὅκου γὰρ ἱππάζονται μάλιστα καὶ πυκνότατα, ἐκεῖ πλεῖστοι ὑπὸ κεδμάτων καὶ ἰσχιάδων καὶ ποδαγριῶν ἁλίσκονται καὶ λαγνεύειν κάκιστοί εἰσι. ταῦτα δὲ τοῖσι Σκύθῃσι πρόσεστι, καὶ εὐνουχοειδέστατοί εἰσιν ἀνθρώπων διὰ ταύτας τε τὰς προφάσιας καὶ ὅτι ἀναξυρίδας ἔχουσιν αἰεὶ καί εἰσιν ἐπὶ τῶν ἵππων τὸ πλεῖστον τοῦ χρόνου, ὥστε μήτε χειρὶ ἅπτεσθαι τοῦ αἰδοίου, ὑπό τε τοῦ ψύχεος καὶ τοῦ κόπου ἐπιλήθεσθαι τοῦ ἱμέρου καὶ τῆς μείξιος, καὶ μηδὲν παρακινεῖν πρότερον ἢ ἀνανδρωθῆναι.
23. The other races in Europe differ from one another, both as to stature and shape, owing to the changes of the seasons, which are very great and frequent, and because the heat is strong, the winters severe, and there are frequent rains, and again protracted droughts, and winds, from which many and diversified changes are induced. These changes are likely to have an effect upon generation in the coagulation of the semen, as this process cannot be the same in summer as in winter, nor in rainy as in dry weather; wherefore, I think, that the figures of Europeans differ more than those of Asiatics; and they differ very much from one another as to stature in the same city; for vitiations of the semen occur in its coagulation more frequently during frequent changes of the seasons, than where they are alike and equable. And the same may be said of their dispositions, for the wild, and unsociable, and the passionate occur in such a constitution; for frequent excitement of the mind induces wildness, and extinguishes sociableness and mildness of disposition, and therefore I think the inhabitants of Europe more courageous than those of Asia; for a climate which is always the same induces indolence, but a changeable climate, laborious exertions both of body and mind; and from rest and indolence cowardice is engendered, and from laborious exertions and pains, courage. On this account the inhabitants of Europe are than the Asiatics, and also owing to their institutions, because they are not governed by kings like the latter, for where men are governed by kings there they must be very cowardly, as I have stated before; for their souls are enslaved, and they will not willingly, or readily undergo dangers in order to promote the power of another; but those that are free undertake dangers on their own account, and not for the sake of others; they court hazard and go out to meet it, for they themselves bear off the rewards of victory, and thus their institutions contribute not a little to their courage. Such is the general character of Europe and Asia.
23. περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν Σκυθέων οὕτως ἔχει τοῦ γένεος. τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν γένος τὸ ἐν τῇ Εὐρώπῃ διάφορον αὐτὸ ἑωυτῷ ἐστι καὶ κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος καὶ κατὰ τὰς μορφὰς διὰ τὰς μεταλλαγὰς τῶν ὡρέων, ὅτι μεγάλαι γίνονται καὶ πυκναί, καὶ θάλπεά τε ἰσχυρὰ καὶ χειμῶνες καρτεροὶ καὶ ὄμβροι πολλοὶ καὶ αὖτις αὐχμοὶ πολυχρόνιοι καὶ πνεύματα, ἐξ ὧν μεταβολαὶ πολλαὶ καὶ παντοδαπαί. ἀπὸ τούτων εἰκὸς αἰσθάνεσθαι καὶ τὴν γένεσιν ἐν τῇ συμπήξει τοῦ γόνου ἄλλοτε ἄλλην καὶ μὴ τῷ αὐτῷ τὴν αὐτὴν γίνεσθαι ἔν τε τῷ θέρει καὶ τῷ χειμῶνι μηδὲ ἐν ἐπομβρίῃ καὶ αὐχμῷ. διότι τὰ εἴδεα διηλλάχθαι νομίζω τῶν Εὐρωπαίων μᾶλλον ἢ τῶν Ἀσιηνῶν καὶ τὰ μεγέθεα διαφορώτατα αὐτὰ ἑωυτοῖς εἶναι κατὰ πόλιν ἑκάστην. αἱ γὰρ φθοραὶ πλείονες ἐγγίνονται τοῦ γόνου ἐν τῇ συμπήξει ἐν τῇσι μεταλλαγῇσι τῶν ὡρέων πυκνῇ σιν ἐούσῃσιν ἢ ἐν τῇσι παραπλησίῃσι καὶ ὁμοίῃσι. περί τε τῶν ἠθέων ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος· τό τε ἄγριον καὶ τὸ ἄμεικτον καὶ τὸ θυμοειδὲς ἐν τῇ τοιαύτῃ φύσει ἐγγίνεται. αἱ γὰρ ἐκπλήξιες πυκναὶ γινόμεναι τῆς γνώμης τὴν ἀγριότητα ἐντιθέασι, τὸ δὲ ἥμερόν τε καὶ ἤπιον ἀμαυροῦσι. διὸ καὶ εὐψυχοτέρους νομίζω τοὺς τὴν Εὐρώπην οἰκέοντας εἶναι ἢ τοὺς τὴν Ἀσίην. ἐν μὲν γὰρ τῷ αἰεὶ παραπλησίῳ αἱ ῥᾳθυμίαι ἔνεισιν, ἐν δὲ τῷ μεταβαλλομένῳ αἱ ταλαιπωρίαι τῷ σώματι καὶ τῇ ψυχῇ. καὶ ἀπὸ μὲν ἡσυχίης καὶ ῥᾳθυμίης ἡ δειλίη αὔξεται, ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς ταλαιπωρίης καὶ τῶν πόνων αἱ ἀνδρεῖαι. διὰ τοῦτό εἰσι μαχιμώτεροι οἱ τὴν Εὐρώπην οἰκέοντες καὶ διὰ τοὺς νόμους, ὅτι οὐ βασιλεύονται ὥσπερ οἱ Ἀσιηνοί. ὅκου γὰρ βασιλεύονται, ἐκεῖ ἀνάγκη δειλοτάτους εἶναι. εἴρηται δέ μοι καὶ πρότερον. αἱ γὰρ ψυχαὶ δεδούλωνται καὶ οὐ βούλονται παρακινδυνεύειν ἑκόντες εἰκῇ ὑπὲρ ἀλλοτρίης δυνάμιος. ὅσοι δὲ αὐτόνομοι — ὑπὲρ ἑωυτῶν γὰρ τοὺς κινδύνους αἱρεῦνται καὶ οὐκ ἄλλων — προθυμεῦνται ἑκόντες καὶ ἐς τὸ δεινὸν ἔρχονται. τὰ γὰρ ἀριστεῖα τῆς νίκης αὐτοὶ φέρονται. οὕτως οἱ νόμοι οὐχ ἥκιστα τὴν εὐψυχίην ἐργάζονται.
24. And there are in Europe other tribes, differing from one another in stature, shape, and courage: the differences are those I formerly mentioned, and will now explain more clearly. Such as inhabit a country which is mountainous, rugged, elevated, and well watered, and where the changes of the seasons are very great, are likely to have great variety of shapes among them, and to be naturally of an enterprising and warlike disposition; and such persons are apt to have no little of the savage and ferocious in their nature; but such as dwell in places which are low-lying, abounding in meadows and ill ventilated, and who have a larger proportion of hot than of cold winds, and who make use of warm waters—these are not likely to be of large stature nor well proportioned, but are of a broad make, fleshy, and have black hair; and they are rather of a dark than of a light complexion, and are less likely to be phlegmatic than bilious; courage and laborious enterprise are not naturally in them, but may be engendered in them by means of their institutions. And if there be rivers in the country which carry off the stagnant and rain water from it, these may be wholesome and clear; but if there be no rivers, but the inhabitants drink the waters of fountains, and such as are stagnant and marshy, they must necessarily have prominent bellies and enlarged spleens. But such as inhabit a high country, and one that is level, windy, and well-watered, will be large of stature, and like to one another; but their minds will be rather unmanly and gentle. Those who live on thin, ill-watered, and bare soils, and not well attempered in the changes of the seasons, in such a country they are likely to be in their persons rather hard and well braced, rather of a blond than a dark complexion, and in disposition and passions haughty and self-willed. For, where the changes of the seasons are most frequent, and where they differ most from one another, there you will find their forms, dispositions, and nature the most varied. These are the strongest of the natural causes of difference, and next the country in which one lives, and the waters; for, in general, you will find the forms and dispositions of mankind to correspond with the nature of the country; for where the land is fertile, soft, and well-watered, and supplied with waters from very elevated situations, so as to be hot in summer and cold in winter, and where the seasons are fine, there the men are fleshy, have ill-formed joints, and are of a humid temperament; they are not disposed to endure labor, and, for the most part, are base in spirit; indolence and sluggishness are visible in them, and to the arts they are dull, and not clever nor acute. When the country is bare, not fenced, and rugged, blasted by the winter and scorched by the sun, there you may see the men hardy, slender, with well-shaped joints, well-braced, and shaggy; sharp industry and vigilance accompany such a constitution; in morals and passions they are haughty and opinionative, inclining rather to the fierce than to the mild; and you will find them acute and ingenious as regards the arts, and excelling in military affairs; and likewise all the other productions of the earth corresponding to the earth itself. Thus it is with regard to the most opposite natures and shapes; drawing conclusions from them, you may judge of the rest without any risk of error.
24. τὸ μὲν οὖν ὅλον καὶ τὸ ἅπαν οὕτως ἔχει περί τε τῆς Εὐρώπης καὶ τῆς Ἀσίης. ἔνεισι δὲ καὶ ἐν τῇ Εὐρώπῃ φῦλα διάφορα ἕτερα ἑτέροισι καὶ τὰ μεγέθεα καὶ τὰς μορφὰς καὶ τὰς ἀνδρείας. τὰ δὲ διαλλάσσοντα ταὐτά ἐστιν, ἃ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν πρότερον εἴρηται. ἔτι δὲ σαφέστερον φράσω. ὁκόσοι μὲν χώρην ὀρεινήν τε οἰκέουσι καὶ τρηχεῖαν καὶ ὑψηλὴν καὶ ἔνυδρον, καὶ αἱ μεταβολαὶ αὐτοῖσι γίνονται τῶν ὡρέων μέγα διάφοροι, ἐνταῦθα εἰκὸς εἴδεα μεγάλα εἶναι καὶ πρὸς τὸ ταλαίπωρον καὶ τὸ ἀνδρεῖον εὖ πεφυκότα, καὶ τό τε ἄγριον καὶ τὸ θηριῶδες αἱ τοιαῦται φύσιες οὐχ ἥκιστα ἔχουσιν. ὁκόσοι δὲ κοῖλα χωρία καὶ λειμακώδεα καὶ πνιγηρὰ καὶ τῶν θερμῶν πνευμάτων πλέον μέρος μετέχουσιν ἢ τῶν ψυχρῶν ὕδασί τε χρέονται θερμοῖσιν, οὗτοι δὲ μεγάλοι μὲν οὐκ ἂν εἴησαν οὐδὲ κανονίαι, ἐς εὖρος δὲ πεφυκότες καὶ σαρκώδεες καὶ μελανότριχες, καὶ αὐτοὶ μέλανες μᾶλλον ἢ λευκότεροι, φλεγματίαι δὲ ἧσσον ἢ χολώδεες· τὸ δὲ ἀνδρεῖον καὶ τὸ ταλαίπωρον ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ φύσει μὲν οὐκ ἂν ὁμοίως ἐνείη, νόμος δὲ προσγενόμενος ἀπεργάζοιτʼ ἄν. καὶ εἰ μὲν ποταμοὶ ἐνείησαν ἐν τῇ χώρῃ, οἵτινες ἐκ τῆς χώρης ἐξοχετεύουσι τό τε στάσιμον καὶ τὸ ὄμβριον, οὗτοι ἂν ὑγιηροί τε εἴησαν καὶ λαμπροί. εἰ μέντοι ποταμοὶ μὲν μὴ εἴησαν, τὰ δὲ ὕδατα λιμναῖά τε καὶ στάσιμα πίνοιεν καὶ ἑλώδεα, ἀνάγκη τὰ τοιαῦτα εἴδεα προγαστρότερα καὶ σπληνώδεα εἶναι. ὁκόσοι δὲ ὑψηλήν τε οἰκέουσι χώρην καὶ λείην καὶ ἀνεμώδεα καὶ ἔνυδρον, εἶεν ἂν εἴδεα μεγάλοι καὶ ἑωυτοῖσι παραπλήσιοι· ἀνανδρότεραι δὲ καὶ ἡμερώτεραι αἱ γνῶμαι. ὁκόσοι δὲ λεπτά τε καὶ ἄνυδρα καὶ ψιλά, τῇσι μεταβολῇσι τῶν ὡρέων οὐκ εὔκρητα, ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ χώρῃ τὰ εἴδεα εἰκὸς σκληρά τε εἶναι καὶ ἔντονα καὶ ξανθότερα ἢ μελάντερα καὶ τὰ ἤθεα καὶ τὰς ὀργὰς αὐθάδεάς τε καὶ ἰδιογνώμονας. ὅκου γὰρ αἱ μεταβολαί εἰσι πυκνόταται τῶν ὡρέων καὶ πλεῖστον διάφοροι αὐταὶ ἑωυτῇσιν, ἐκεῖ καὶ τὰ εἴδεα καὶ τὰ ἤθεα καὶ τὰς φύσιας εὑρήσεις πλεῖστον διαφερούσας. Μέγισται μὲν οὖν εἰσιν αὗται τῆς φύσιος αἱ διαλλαγαί, ἔπειτα δὲ καὶ ἡ χώρη, ἐν ᾗ ἄν τις τρέφηται καὶ τὰ ὕδατα. εὑρήσεις γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ πλῆθος τῆς χώρης τῇ φύσει ἀκολουθέοντα καὶ τὰ εἴδεα τῶν ἀνθρώπων καὶ τοὺς τρόπους. ὅκου μὲν γὰρ ἡ γῆ πίειρα καὶ μαλθακὴ καὶ ἔνυδρος, καὶ τὰ ὕδατα κάρτα μετέωρα, ὥστε θερμὰ εἶναι τοῦ θέρεος καὶ τοῦ χειμῶνος ψυχρά, καὶ τῶν ὡρέων καλῶς κεῖται, ἐνταῦθα καὶ οἱ ἄνθρωποι σαρκώδεές εἰσι καὶ ἄναρθροι καὶ ὑγροὶ καὶ ἀταλαίπωροι καὶ τὴν ψυχὴν κακοὶ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ. τό τε ῥᾴθυμον καὶ τὸ ὑπνηρὸν ἔνεστιν ἐν αὐτοῖς ἰδεῖν· ἔς τε τὰς τέχνας παχέες καὶ οὐ λεπτοὶ οὐδʼ ὀξέες. ὅκου δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ χώρη ψιλή τε καὶ ἄνυδρος καὶ τρηχεῖα καὶ ὑπὸ τοῦ χειμῶνος πιεζομένη καὶ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου κεκαυμένη, ἐνταῦθα δὲ σκληρούς τε καὶ ἰσχνοὺς καὶ διηρθρωμένους καὶ ἐντόνους καὶ δασέας ἴδοις. τό τε ἐργατικὸν ἐνεὸν ἐν τῇ φύσει τῇ τοιαύτῃ καὶ τὸ ἄγρυπνον, τά τε ἤθεα καὶ τὰς ὀργὰς αὐθάδεας καὶ ἰδιογνώμονας, τοῦ τε ἀγρίου μᾶλλον μετέχοντας ἢ τοῦ ἡμέρου, ἔς τε τὰς τέχνας ὀξυτέρους τε καὶ συνετωτέρους καὶ τὰ πολέμια ἀμείνους εὑρήσεις· καὶ τἄλλα τὰ ἐν τῇ γῇ φυόμενα πάντα ἀκόλουθα ἐόντα τῇ γῇ. αἱ μὲν ἐναντιώταται φύσιές τε καὶ ἰδέαι ἔχουσιν οὕτως. ἀπὸ δὲ τούτων τεκμαιρόμενος τὰ λοιπὰ ἐνθυμεῖσθαι, καὶ οὐχ ἁμαρτήσῃ.