3.52. We must also beware of confusing our utterance by excessive volubility, which results in disregard of punctuation, loss of emotional power, and sometimes in the clipping of words. The opposite fault is excessive slowness of speech, which is a sign of lack of readiness in invention, tends by its sluggishness to render our hearers inattentive, and, further, wastes the time allotted to us for speaking, a consideration which is of some importance. Our speech must be ready, but not precipitate, under control, but not slow, while we must not take breath so often as to break up our sentence, nor, on the other hand, sustain it until it fails us from exhaustion.
3.52. volubilitate nimia confundenda quae dicimus, qua et distinctio perit et adfectus, et nonnunquam etiam verba aliqua sui parte fraudantur. contrarium est vitium nimiae tarditatis; nam et difficultatem inveniendi fatetur et segnitia solvit animos et, in quo est aliquid, temporibus praefinitis aquam perdit. sit os, non praeceps, moderatum, non lentum;
3.53. For the sound produced by loss of breath is disagreeable; we gasp like a drowning man and fill our lungs with long drawn inhalations at in appropriate moments, giving the impression that our action is due not to choice, but to compulsion. Therefore, in attacking a period of abnormal length, we should collect our breath, but quickly, noiselessly and imperceptibly. On other occasions we shall be able to take breath at the natural breaks in the substance of our speech.
3.53. spiritus quoque nec crebro receptus concidat sententiam, nec eo usque trahatur, donec deficiat. et deformis est consumpti illius sonus et respiratio sub aqua diu pressi similis et receptus longior et non opportunus, ut qui fiat non ubi volumus, sed ubi necesse est. longiorem dicturis periodum colligendus est spiritus, ita tamen, ut id neque diu neque cum sono faciamus, neque omnino ut manifestum sit; reliquis partibus optime inter iuncturas sermonis revocabitur.
3.54. But we must exercise our breathing capacity to make it as great as possible. To produce this result Demosthenes used to recite as many successive lines as possible, while he was climbing a hill. He also, with a view to securing fluency free from impediment, used to roll pebbles under his tongue when speaking in the privacy of his study.
3.54. autem est, ut sit quam longissimus; quod Demosthenes ut efficeret, scandens in adversum continuabat quam posset plurimos versus., quo facilius verba ore libero exprimeret, calculos lingua volvens dicere domi solebat.
3.55. Sometimes the breath, although capable of sustained effort and sufficiently full and clear, lacks firmness when exerted, had for that reason is liable to become tremulous, like bodies which, although to all appearances sound, receive insufficient support from the sinews. This the Greeks call βρασμός. There are some too who, owing to the loss of teeth, do not draw in the breath naturally, but suck it in with a hissing sound. There are others who pant incessantly and so loudly that it is perfectly audible within them: they remind one of heavily-laden beasts of burden straining against the yoke.
3.55. interim et longus et plenus et clarus satis spiritus, non tamen firmae intentionis ideoque tremulus, ut corpora, quae aspectu integra nervis parum sustinentur; id βρασμόν Graeci vocant. qui spiritum cum stridore per raritatem dentium non recipiunt, sed resorbent. qui crebro anhelitu et introrsum etiam clare sonante imitentur iumenta onere et iugo laborantia.
3.56. Some indeed actually affect this mannerism, as though to suggest that they are struggling with the host of ideas that crowd themselves upon them and oppressed by a greater flood of eloquence than their throats are capable of uttering. Others, again, find a difficulty in opening their mouths, and seem to struggle with their words; and, further, although they are not actually faults of the voice, yet since they arise out of the use of the voice, I think this is the most appropriate place for referring to the habit of coughing and spitting with frequency while speaking, of hawking up phlegm from the depths of the lungs, like water from a well, sprinkling the nearest of the bystanders with saliva, and expelling the greater portion of the breath through the nostrils.
3.56. adfectant quoque, tanquam inuentionis copia urgeantur maiorque vis eloquentiae ingruat, quam quae emitti faucibus possit. aliis concursus oris et cum verbis suis colluctatio. iam tussire et exspuere crebro et ab imo pulmone pituitam trochleis adducere et oris humore proximos spargere et maiorem partem spiritus in loquendo per nares effundere, etiamsi non utique vocis sunt vitia, quia tamen propter vocem accidunt, potissimum huic loco subiciantur.
3.57. But any of these faults are tolerable compared with the practice of chanting instead of speaking, which is the worst feature of our modern oratory, whether in the courts or in the schools, and of which I can only say that I do not know whether it is more useless or more repugnant to good taste. For what can be less becoming to an orator than modulations that recall the stage and a sing-song utterance which at times resembles the maudlin utterance of drunken revellers?
3.57. quodcunque ex his vitium magis tulerim quam, quo nunc maxime laboratur in causis omnibus scholisque, cantandi, quod inutilius sit an foedius, nescio. enim minus oratori convenit quam modulatio scenica et nonnunquam ebriorum aut comissantium licentiae similis?
3.58. What can be more fatal to any emotional appeal than that the speaker should, when the situation calls for grief, anger, indignation or pity, not merely avoid the expression of those emotions which require to be kindled in the judge, but outrage the dignity of the courts with noises such as are dear to the Lycians and Carians? For Cicero has told us that the rhetoricians of Lycia and Caria come near to singing in their perorations. But, as a matter of tact, we have somewhat overstepped the limits imposed by the more restrained style of singing.
3.58. vero movendis adfectibus contrarium magis quam, cum dolendum, irascendum, indignandum, commiserandum sit, non solum ab his adfectibus, in quos inducendus est iudex, recedere, sed ipsam fori sanctitatem Lyciorum et Carum licentia solvere? Cicero illos ex Lycia et Caria rhetoras paene cantare in epilogis dixit. etiam cantandi severiorem paulo modum excessimus.
3.59. I ask you, does anyone sing, I will not say when his theme is murder, sacrilege or parricide, but at any rate when he deals with figures or accounts, or, to cut a long story short, when he is pleading in any kind of lawsuit whatever? And if such a form of intonation is to be permitted at all, there is really no reason why the modulations of the voice should not be accompanied by harps and flutes, or even by cymbals, which would be more appropriate to the revolting exhibitions of which I am speaking.
3.59. , non dico de homicidio, sacrilegio, parricidio, sed de calculis certe atque rationibus, quisquam denique, ut semel finiam, in lite cantat? si omnino recipiendum est, nihil causae est, cur non illam vocis modulationem fidibus ac tibiis, immo me hercule, quod est huic deformitati propius, cymbalis adiuvemus.
3.60. And yet we show no reluctance in indulging this vicious practice. For no one thinks his own singing hideous, and it involves less trouble than genuine pleading. There are, moreover, some persons who, in thorough conformity with their other vices, are possessed with a perpetual passion for hearing something that will soothe their ears. But, it may be urged, does not Cicero himself say that there is a suggestion of singing in the utterance of an orator? And is not this the outcome of a natural impulse? I shall shortly proceed to show to what extent such musical modulations are permissible: but if we are to call it singing, it must be no more than a suggestion of singing, a fact which too many refuse to realise.
3.60. tamen hoc libenter; nam nec cuiquam sunt iniucunda quae cantant ipsi, et laboris in hoc quam in agendo minus est. sunt quidam, qui secundum alia vitae vitia etiam hac ubique audiendi, quod aures mulceat, voluptate ducantur. Quid ergo? non et Cicero dicit esse aliquem in oratione cantum obscuriorem? et hoc quodam naturali initio venit? non multo post, ubi et quatenus recipiendus sit hic flexus et cantus quidem sed, quod plerique intelligere nolunt, obscurior.
3.61. But it is now high time for me to explain what I mean by appropriate delivery. Such appropriateness obviously lies in the adaptation of the delivery to the subjects on which we are speaking. This quality is, in the main, supplied by the emotions themselves, and the voice will ring as passion strikes its chords. But there is a difference between true emotion on the one hand, and false and fictitious emotion on the other. The former breaks out naturally, as in the case of grief, anger or indignation, but lacks art, and therefore requires to be formed by methodical training.
3.61. enim tempus est dicendi, quae sit apta pronuntiatio. certe ea est, quae iis, de quibus dicimus, accommodatur. quidem maxima ex parte praestant ipsi motus animorum, sonatque vox, ut feritur; sed cum sint alii veri adfectus, alii ficti et imitati, veri naturaliter erumpunt, ut dolentium, irascentium, indignantium, sed carent arte, ideoque sunt disciplina et ratione formandi.
3.62. The latter, on the other hand, does imply art, but lacks the sincerity of nature: consequently in such cases the main thing is to excite the appropriate feeling in oneself, to form a mental picture of the facts, and to exhibit an emotion that cannot be distinguished from the truth. The voice, which is the intermediary between ourselves and our hearers, will then produce precisely the same emotion in the judge that we have put into it. For it is the index of the mind, and is capable of expressing all its varieties of feeling.
3.62. qui effinguntur imitatione, artem habent; sed hi carent natura, ideoque in iis primum est bene adfici et concipere imagines rerum et tanquam veris moveri. velut media vox, quem habitum a nobis acceperit, hunc iudicum animis dabit. enim mentis index ac totidem, quot illa, mutationes habet.
3.63. Therefore when we deal with a lively theme, the flow of the voice is characterised by fullness, simplicity and cheerfulness; but when it is roused to battle, it puts forth all its strength and strains every nerve. In anger it is fierce, harsh and intense, and calls for frequent filling of the lungs, since the breath cannot be sustained for long when it is poured forth without restraint. When it is desired to throw odium upon our opponents, it will be somewhat slower, since, as a rule, it is none save the weaker party takes refuge in such tactics. On the other hand, in flattery, admission, apology or question it will be gentle and subdued.
3.63. laetis in rebus plena et simplex et ipsa quodammodo hilaris fluit; at in certamine erecta totis viribus et velut omnibus nervis intenditur. in ira et aspera ac densa et respiratione crebra; neque enim potest esse longus spiritus, cum immoderate effunditur. in invidia facienda lentior, quia non fere ad hanc nisi inferiores confugiunt; at in blandiendo, fatendo, satisfaciendo, rogando, lenis et summissa.
3.64. If we advise, warn, promise or console, it will be grave and dignified, modest if we express fear or shame, bold in exhortation, precise in argument, full of modulations, suggestive of tears and designedly muffled in appeals for pity, whereas in digression it will be full and flowing, and will have all the resonance that is characteristic of confidence; in exposition of facts or conversations it will be even and pitched half-way betwixt high and low.
3.64. et monentium et pollicentium et consolantium gravis, in metu et verecundia contracta, adhortationibus fortis, disputationibus teres, miseratione flexa et flebilis et consulto quasi obscurior; at in egressionibus fusa et securae claritatis, in expositione ac sermonibus recta et inter acutum sonum et gravem media.
3.65. But it will be raised to express violent emotion, and sink when our words are of a calmer nature, rising and falling according to the demands of its theme. However, for the moment I will defer speaking of the variations in tone required by different topics, and will proceed first to the discussion of gesture which conforms to the voice, and like it, obeys the impulse of the mind. Its importance in oratory is sufficiently clear from the fact that there are many things which it can express without the assistance of words.
3.65. autem concitatis adfectibus, compositis descendit pro utriusque rei modo altius vel inferius. autem quisque in dicendo postulet locus, paulum differam, ut de gestu prius dicam, qui et ipse voci consentit et animo cum ea simul paret. quantum habeat in oratore momenti, satis vel ex eo patet quod pleraque etiam citra verba significat.
3.66. For we can indicate our will not merely by a gesture of the hands, but also with a nod from the head: signs take the place of language in the dumb, and the movements of the dance are frequently full of meaning, and appeal to the emotions without any aid from words. The temper of the mind can be inferred from the glance and gait, and even speechless animals show anger, joy, or the desire to please by means of the eye and other physical indications.
3.66. non manus solum, sed nutus etiam declarant nostram voluntatem et in mutis pro sermone sunt, et saltatio frequenter sine voce intelligitur atque adficit, et ex vultu ingressuque perspicitur habitus animorum; et animalium quoque sermone carentium ira, laetitia, adulatio et oculis et quibusdam aliis corporis signis deprehenditur.
3.67. Nor is it wonderful that gesture which depends on various forms of movement should have such power, when pictures, which are silent and motionless, penetrate into our innermost feelings with such power that at times they seem more eloquent than language itself. On the other hand, if gesture and the expression of the face are out of harmony with the speech, if we look cheerful when our words are sad. or slake our heads when making a positive assertion, our words will not only lack weight, but will fail to carry conviction.
3.67. mirum, si ista, quae tamen in aliquo posita sunt motu, tantum in animis valent, cum picture, tacens opus et habitus semper eiusdem, sic in intimos penetret adfectus, ut ipsam vim dicendi nonnunquam superare videatur. si gestus ac vultus ab oratione dissentiat, tristia dicamus hilares, adfirmemus aliqua renuentes non auctoritas modo verbis, sed etiam fides desit. quoque a gestu atque motu venit;
3.68. Gesture and movement are also productive of grace. It was for this reason that Demosthenes used to practise his delivery in front of a large mirror, since, in spite of the fact that its reflexions are reversed, he trusted his eyes to enable him to judge accurately the effect produced. The head, being the chief member of the body, has a corresponding importance in delivery, serving not merely to produce graceful elect, but to illustrate our meaning as well.
3.68. ideoque Demosthenes grande quoddam intuens speculum componere actionem solebat; adeo, quamuis fulgor ille sinistras imagines reddat, suis demum oculis credidit, quod efficeret. vero in actione sicut in corpore ipso caput est cum ad illum, de quo dixi, decorem, tum etiam ad significationem.
3.69. To secure grace it is essential that the head should be carried naturally an erect. For a droop suggests humility, while if it be thrown back it seems to express arrogance, if inclined to one side it gives an impression of languor, while if it is held too stiffly and rigidly it appears to indicate a rude and savage temper. Further, it should derive appropriate motion from the subject of our pleading, maintaining harmony with the gesture and following the movement of the hands and side.
3.69. illa sunt, ut sit primo rectum et secundum naturam. et deiecto humilitas et supino arrogantia et in latus inclinato languor et praeduro ac rigente barbaria quaedam mentis ostenditur. accipiat aptos ex ipsa actione motus, ut cum gestu concordet et manibus ac lateribus obsequatur.
3.70. For the eyes are always turned in the same direction as the gesture, except when we are called upon to condemn or concede something or to express abhorrence, when we shall show our aversion by turning away the face and by thrusting out our hands as though to repel the thought, as in the lines:Ye gods, such dread calamity avert!orNot for meTo claim such honour!
3.70. enim semper eodem vertitur quo gestus, exceptis quae aut damnare aut concedere aut a nobis removere oportebit, ut idem illud vultu videamur aversari, manu repellere:—Di talem avertite pestem.—haud equidem tali me dignor honore.Significat vero plurimis modis.
3.71. The methods by which the head may express our meaning are manifold. For in addition to those movements which indicate consent, refusal and affirmation, there are those expressive of modesty, hesitation, wonder or indignation, which are well known and common to all. But to confine the gesture to the movement of the head alone is regarded as a fault by those who teach acting as well as by professors of rhetoric. Even the frequent nodding of the head is not free from fault, while to toss or roll it till our hair flies free is suggestive of a fanatic.
3.71. praeter adnuendi, renuendi confirmandique motus sunt et verecundiae et dubitationis et admirationis et indignationis noti et communes omnibus. tamen eo facere gestum scenici quoque doctores vitiosum putaverunt. frequens eius nutus non caret vitio; adeo iactare id et comas excutientem rotare fanaticum est.
3.72. By far the greatest influence is exercised by the glance. For it is by this that we express supplication, threats, flattery, sorrow, joy, pride or submission. It is on this that our audience hang, on this that they rivet their attention and their gaze, even before we begin to speak. It is this that inspires the hearer with affection or dislike, this that conveys a world of meaning and is often more eloquent than all our words.
3.72. autem maxime vultus. supplices, hoc minaces, hoc blandi, hoc tristes, hoc hilares, hoc erecti, hoc summissi sumus; hoc pendent homines, line intuentur, hic spectator, etiam antequam dicimus; hoc quosdam amamus, hoc odimus, hoc plurima intelligimus, hic est saepe pro omnibus verbis.
3.73. Consequently in plays destined for the stage, the masters of the art of delivery design even their masks to enhance the emotional effect. Thus, in tragedy, Aerope will be sad, Medea fierce, Ajax bewildered, Hercules truculent.
3.73. in iis, quae ad scenam componuntur, fabulis artifices pronuntiandi a personis quoque adfectus mutuantur, ut sit Aerope in tragoedia tristis, atrox Medea, attonitus Aiax, truculentus Hercules.
3.74. In comedy, on the other hand, over and above the methods adopted to distinguish between slaves, pimps, parasites, rustics, soldiers, harlots, maidservants, old men stern and mild, youths moral or luxurious, married women and girls, we have the important rôle of the father who, because at times he is excited and at others call, has one eyebrow raised and the other normal, the custom among actors being to turn that side of the face to the audience which best suits the role.
3.74. comoediis vero praeter aliam observationem, qua servi, lenones, parasiti, rustici, milites, meretriculae, ancillae, senes austeri ac mites, iuvenes severi ac luxuriosi, matronae, puellae inter se discernuntur, pater ille, cuius praecipuae partes sunt, quia interim concitatus, interim lenis est, altero erecto, altero composito est supercilio; atque id ostendere maxime latus actoribus moris est, quod cum iis, quas agunt, partibus congruat.
3.75. But of the various elements that go to form the expression, the eyes are the most important, since they, more than any-thing else, reveal the temper of the mind, and without actual movement will twinkle with merriment or be clouded with grief. And further, nature has given them tears to serve as interpreters of our feelings, tears that will break forth for sorrow or stream for very joy. But, when the eyes move, they become intent, indifferent, proud, fierce, mild, or angry; and they will assume all these characters according as the pleading may demand.
3.75. in ipso vultu plurimum valent oculi, per quos maxime animus eminet, ut citra motum quoque et hilaritate enitescant et tristitiae quoddam nubilum ducant. etiam lacrimas iis natura mentis indices dedit, quae aut erumpunt dolore aut laetitia manant. vero intenti, remissi, superbi, torvi, mites, asperi fiunt, quae, ut actus poposcerit, fingentur.
3.76. But they must never he fixed or protruding, languid or sluggish, lifeless, lascivious, restless, nor swim with a moist voluptuous glance, nor look aslant nor leer in amorous fashion, nor yet must they seem to promise or ask a boon. As for keeping them fully or partially closed while speaking, surely none save an uneducated man or a fool would dream of doing such a thing.
3.76. vero et extenti, aut languidi et torpentes, aut stupentes, aut lascivi et mobiles, et natantes et quadam voluptate suffusi, aut limi et, ut sic dicam, venerei, aut poscentes aliquid pollicentesve nunquam esse debebunt. opertos compressosve eos in dicendo quis nisi plane rudis aut stultus habeat?
3.77. And in addition to all these forms of expression, the upper and lower eyelids can render service in support of the eyes.
3.77. ad haec omnia exprimenda in palpebris etiam et in genis est quoddam deserviens iis ministerium.
3.78. The eyebrows also may be used with great effect. For to some extent they mould the expression of the eyes and determine that of the forehead. It is by means of the eyebrows that we contract, raise or smooth the latter: in fact, the only thing which has greater influence over it is the blood, which moves in conformity with the emotions that control the mind, causing a blush on a skin that is sensitive to shame, and giving place to an icy pallor under the influence of fear, whereas, when it is under control, it produces a peaceful complexion, intermediate between the two.
3.78. et superciliis agitur. et oculos formant aliquatenus et fronti imperant. contrahitur, attollitur, remittitur, ut una res in ea plus valeat, sanguis ille, qui mentis habitu movetur et, cum infirmam verecundia cutem accipit, effunditur in ruborem, cum metu refugit, abit omnis et pallore frigescit; temperatus medium quoddam serenum efficit.
3.79. Complete immobility in the eyebrows is a fault, as also is excess of mobility or the tendency to raise one and lower the other, as in the comic mask which I mentioned just now: while it is a further blemish if they express a feeling out of keeping with the words we utter. For they show anger by contraction, grief by depression and cheerfulness by their expansion. They are also dropped or raised to express consent or refusal respectively.
3.79. in superciliis, si aut immota sunt omnino aut nimium mobilia aut inaequalitate, ut modo de persona comica dixeram, dissident aut contra id quod dicimus finguntur. enim contractis, tristitia deductis, hilaritas remissis ostenditur. quoque et renuendi ratione demittuntur aut allevantur.
3.80. It is not often that the lips or nostrils can be becomingly employed to express our feelings, although they are often used to indicate derision, contempt or loathing. For to “wrinkle the nostrils” (as Horace says), or blow them out, or twitch them, or fret them with our finger, or snort through them with a sudden expulsion of the breath, or stretch them wide or push them up with the flat of the hand are all indecorous, since it is not without reason that censure is passed even on blowing the nose too frequently.
3.80. labrisque non fere quidquam decenter ostendimus, tametsi derisus iis, contemptus, fastidium significari solet. et corrugare nares, ut Horatius ait, et inflare et movere et digito inquietare et impulso subito spiritu excutere et diducere saepius et plana manu resupinare indecorum est, cum emunctio etiam frequentior non sine causa reprehendatur.
3.81. It is also an ugly habit to protrude the lips, open them with a sudden smack, compress them, draw them apart and bare the teeth, or twist them awry to one side till they almost reach the ear, or to curl them in scorn, or let them droop, or allow the voice to escape only on one side. It is also unbecoming to lick or bite them, since their motion should be but slight even when they are employed in forming words. For we must speak with the mouth rather than the lips.
3.81. et porriguntur male et scinduntur et adstringuntur et diducuntur et dentes nudant et in latus ac paene ad aurem trahuntur et velut quodam fastidio replicantur et pendent et vocem tantum altera parte dimittunt. quoque ea et mordere deforme est, cum etiam in efficiendis verbis modicus eorum esse debeat motus; ore enim magis quam labris loquendum est.
3.82. The neck must be straight, not stiff or bent backward. As regards the throat, contraction and stretching are equally unbecoming, though in different ways. If it be stretched, it causes strain as well, and weakens and fatigues the voice, while if the chin be pressed down into the chest it makes the voice less distinct and coarsens it, owing to the pressure on the windpipe.
3.82. rectam oportet esse, non rigidam aut supinam. diversa quidem, sed pari deformitate et contrahitur et tenditur, sed tenso subest et labor, tenuaturque vox ac fatigatur; adfixum pectori mentum minus claram et quasi latiorem presso gutture facit.
3.83. It is, as a rule, unbecoming to raise or contract the shoulders. For it shortens the neck and produces a mean and servile gesture, which is even suggestive of dishonesty when men assume an attitude of flattery, admiration or fear.
3.83. raro decens adlevatio atque contractio est; breviatur enim cervix et gestum quendam humilem atque servilem et quasi fraudulentum facit, cum se in habitum adulationis, admirationis, metus tingunt.
3.84. In continuous and flowing passages a most becoming gesture is slightly to extend the arm with shoulders well thrown back and the fingers opening as the hand moves forward. But when we have to speak in specially rich or impressive style, as, for example, in the passage saxa atiqu solitudines voci respondent, the arm will be thrown out in a stately sidelong sweep and the words will, as it were, expand in unison with the gesture.
3.84. moderata proiectio, remissis humeris atque explicantibus se in proferenda manu digitis, continuos et decurrentes locos maxime decet. cum speciosius quid uberiusque dicendum est, ut illud atque solitudines voci respondent, exspatiatur in latus et ipsa quodammodo se cum gestu fundit oratio.
3.85. As for the hands, without which all action would be crippled and enfeebled, it is scarcely possible to describe the variety of their motions, since they are almost as expressive as words. For other portions of the body merely help the speaker, whereas the hands may almost be said to speak.
3.85. vero, sine quibus trunca esset actio ac debilis, vix dici potest, quot motus habeant, cum paene ipsam verborum copiam consequantur. ceterae partes loquentem adiuuant, hae, prope est ut dicam, ipsae loquuntur.
3.86. Do we not use them to demand, promise, summon, dismiss, threaten, supplicate, express aversion or fear, question or deny? Do we not employ them to indicate joy, sorrow, hesitation, confession, penitence, measure, quantity, number and time?
3.86. his poscimus, pollicemur, uocamus, dimittimus, minamur, supplicamus, abominamur, timemus, interrogamus, negamus; gaudium, tristitiam, dubitationem, confessionem, paenitentiam, modum, copiam, numerum, tempus ostendimus?
3.87. Have they not power to excite and prohibit, to express approval, wonder or shame? Do they not take the place of adverbs and pronouns when we point at places and things? In fact, though the peoples and nations of the earth speak a multitude of tongues, they share in common the universal language of the hands.
3.87. eaedem concitant, inhibent, probant, admirantur, verecundantur? in demonstrandis locis ac personis adverbiorum atque pronominum obtinent vicem? in tanta per omnes gentes nationesque linguae diversitate hic mihi omnium hominum communis sermo videatur.
3.88. The gestures of which I have thus far spoken are such as naturally proceed from us simultaneously with our words. But there are others which indicate things by means of mimicry. For example, you may suggest a sick man by mimicking the gesture of a doctor feeling the pulse, or a harpist by a movement of the hands as though they were plucking the strings. But this is a type of gesture which should be rigorously avoided in pleading.
3.88. hi quidem, de quibus sum locutus, cum ipsis vocibus naturaliter exeunt gestus; alii sunt, qui res imitatione significant, ut si aegrum temptantis venas medici similitudine aut citharoedum formatis ad modum percutientis nervos manibus ostendas; quod est genus quam longissime in actione fugiendum.
3.89. For the orator should be as unlike a dancer as possible, and his gesture should be adapted rather to his thought than to his actual words, a practice which was indeed once upon a time even adopted by the more dignified performers on the stage. I should, therefore, permit him to direct his hand towards his body to indicate that he is speaking of himself, or to point it at some one else to whom he is alluding, together with other similar gestures which I need not mention. But, on the other hand, I would not allow him to use his hands to imitate attitudes or to illustrate anything he may chance to say.
3.89. enim plurimum a saltatore debet orator, ut sit gestus ad sensus magis quam ad verba accommodatus; quod etiam histrionibus paulo gravioribus facere moris fuit. ut ad se manum referre, cum de se ipso loquatur, et in eum quem demonstret intendere et aliqua his similia permiserim, ita non effingere status quosdam et quidquid dicet ostendere.
3.90. And this rule applies not merely to the hands, but to all gesture and to the voice as well. For in delivering the period stetit soleatus praetor populi Romani, it would be wrong to imitate Verres leaning on his mistress, or in uttering the phrase caedebatur in medio foro Messanae to make the side writhe, as it does when quivering beneath the lash, or to utter shrieks, such as are extorted by pain.
3.90. id in manibus solum, sed in omni gestu ac voce servandum est. enim aut in illa periodo, soleatus praetor populi Romani, inclinatio incumbentis in mulierculam Verris effingenda est; aut in illa, in medio foro Messanae, motus laterum, qualis esse ad verbera solet, torquendus, aut vox, qualis dolore exprimitur, eruenda;
3.91. For even comic actors seem to me to commit a gross offence against the canons of their art when, if they have in the course of some narrative to quote either the words of an old man (as, for example, in the prologue to the Hydria ), or of a woman (as in the ( Georgus ), they litter them in a tremulous or a treble voice, notwithstanding the fact that they are playing the part of a young man. So true is it that certain forms of imitation may be a blemish even in those whose whole art consists in imitation.
3.91. cum mihi comoedi quoque pessime facere videantur, quod, etiamsi iuvenem agant, cum tamen in expositione aut senis sermo, ut in Hydriae prologo, aut mulieris, ut in Georgo, incidit, tremula vel effeminate voce pronuntiant. in illis quoque est aliqua vitiosa imitatio, quorum ars omnis constat imitatione.
3.92. One of the commonest of all the gestures consists in placing the middle finger against the thumb and extending the remaining three: it is suitable to the exordum, the hand being moved forward with an easy motion a little distance both to right and left, while the head and shoulders gradually follow the direction of the gesture. It is also useful in the statement of facts, but in that case the hand must be moved with firmness and a little further forward, while, if we are reproaching or refuting our adversary, the same movement may be employed with some vehemence and energy, since such passages permit of greater freedom of extension.
3.92. autem gestus ille maxime communis, quo medius digitus in pollicem contrahitur explicitis tribus, et principiis utilis cum leni in utramque partem motu modice prolatus, simul capite atque humeris sensim ad id, quo manus feratur, obsecundantibus, et in narrando certus, sed tum paulo productior, et in exprobrando et coarguendo acer atque instans, longius enim partibus his et liberius exeritur.
3.93. On the other hand, this same gesture is often directed sideways towards the left shoulder: this is a mistake, although it is a still worse fault to thrust the arm across the chest and gesticulate with the elbow. The middle and third fingers are also sometimes turned under the thumb, producing a still more forcible effect than the gesture previously described, but not well adapted for use in the exordium or state- meant of facts.
3.93. vero idem sinistrum quasi humerum petens in latus agi solet, quanquam adhuc peius aliqui transversum brachium proferunt et cubito pronuntiant. quoque medii sub pollicem veniunt, et est hic adhuc priore gestus instantior, principio et narrationi non commodatus.
3.94. But when three fingers are doubled under the thumb, the finger, which Cicero says that Crassus used to such effect, is extended. It is used in denunciation and in indication (whence its name of index finger), while if it be slightly dropped after the hand has been raised toward the shoulder, it signifies affirmation, and if pointed as it were face downwards toward the ground, it expresses insistence. It is sometimes also used to indicate number.
3.94. cum tres contracti pollice premuntur, tum digitus ille, quo usum optime Crassum Cicero dicit, explicari solet. in exprobrando et indicando, unde ei nomen est, valet, et adlevata ac spectante humerum manu paulum inclinatus adfirmat, versus in terram et quasi pronus urget; et aliquando pro numero est.
3.95. Again, if its top joint is lightly gripped on either side, with the two outer fingers slightly curved, the little finger rather less than the third, we shall have a gesture well suited for argument. But for this purpose the same gesture is rendered more emphatic by holding the middle joint of the finger and contracting the last two fingers still further to match the lower position of the middle finger and thumb.
3.95. summo articulo utrinque leviter apprehenso, duobus modice curvatis, minus tamen minimo, aptus ad disputandum est. tamen argumentari videntur, qui medium articulum potius tenent, tanto contractioribus ultimis digitis, quanto priores descenderunt.
3.96. The following gesture is admirably adapted to accompany modest language: the thumb and the next three fingers are gently converged to a point and the hand is carried to the neighbourhood of the month or chest, then relaxed palm downwards and slightly advanced.
3.96. et ille verecundae orationi aptissimus, quo, quattuor primis leviter in summum coeuntibus digitis, non procul ab ore aut pectore fertur ad nos manus et deinde prona ac paulum prolata laxatur.
3.97. It was with this gesture that I believe Demosthenes to have commenced the timid and subdued exordium of his speech in defence of Ctesiphon, and it was, I think, in such a position that Cicero held his land, when he said, “If I have any talent, though I am conscious how little it is.” Slightly greater freedom may be given to the gesture by pointing the fingers down and drawing the hand in towards the body and then opening it somewhat more rapidly in the opposite direction, so that it seems as though it were delivering our words to the audience.
3.97. modo coepisse Demosthenen credo in illo pro Ctesiphonte timido summissoque principio, sic formatam Ciceronis manum, cum diceret: quid est ingenii in me, quod senior quam sit exiguum. aliquatenus liberius deorsum spectantibus digitis colligitur in nos et fusius paulo in diversum resolvitur, ut quodammodo sermonem ipsum proferre videatur.
3.98. Sometimes we may hold the first two fingers apart without, however, inserting the thumb between them, the remaining two pointing inwards, while even the two former must not be fully extended.
3.98. interim digitos distinguimus, sed non inserto pollice, paulum tamen inferioribus intra spectantibus, sed ne illis quidem tensis, qui supra sunt.
3.99. Sometimes, again, the third and little finger may be pressed in to the palm near the base of the thumb, which in its turn is pressed against the middle joints of the first and middle fingers; at others the little finger is sometimes drooped obliquely, or the four fingers may be relaxed rather than extended and the thumb slanted inwards: this last gesture is well adapted to pointing to one side or marking the different points which we are making, the had being carried palmupwards to the left and swept back to the right face-downwards.
3.99. extremi palmam circa ima pollicis premunt, ipse prioribus ad medios articulos iungitur; interim quartus oblique reponitur; interim quattuor remissis magis quam tensis, pollice intus inclinato, habilem demonstrando in latus aut distinguendis, quae dicimus, manum facimus, cum supina in sinistrum latus, prona in alterum fertur.
3.100. The following short gestures are also employed: the hand may be slightly hollowed as it is when persons are making a vow, and then moved slightly to and fro, the shoulders swaying gently in unison: this is adapted to passages where we speak with restraint and almost with timidity. Wonder is best expressed as follows: the hand turns slightly upwards and the fingers are brought in to the palm, one after the other, beginning with the little finger; the hand is then opened and turned round by a reversal of this motion.
3.100. et illi breves gestus, cum manus leviter pandata, qualis voventium est, parvis intervallis et subadsentientibus humeris movetur, maxime apta parce et quasi timide loquentibus. admirationi conveniens ille gestus, quo manus modice supinata ac per singulos a minimo collecta digitos redeunte flexu simul explicatur atque convertitur.
3.101. There are various methods of expressing interrogation; but, as a rule, we do so by a turn of the hand, the arrangement of the fingers being indifferent. If the first finger touch the middle of the right-hand edge of the thumb-nail with its extremity, the other fingers being relaxed, we shall have a graceful gesture well suited to express approval or to accompany statements of facts, and to mark the distinction between our different points.
3.101. uno modo interrogantes gestum componimus, plerumque tamen vertentes manum, utcunque composita est. proximus digitus mediumque, qua dexter est, unguem pollicis summo suo iungens, remissis ceteris, est et adprobantibus et narrantibus et distinguentibus decorus.
3.102. There is another gesture not unlike the preceding, in which the remaining three fingers are folded: it is much employed by the Greeks both for the left hand and the right, in rounding off their enthymemes, detail by detail. A gentle movement of the hand expresses promise or assent, a more violent movement suggests exhortation or sometimes praise. There is also that familiar gesture by which we drive home our words, consisting in the rapid opening and shutting of the hand: but this is a common rather than an artistic gesture.
3.102. non dissimilis, sed complicitis tribus digitis, quo nunc Graeci plurimum utuntur, etiam utraque manu, quotiens enthymemata sua gestu corrotundant velut caesim. lenior promittit et adsentatur, citatior hortatur, interim laudat. et ille urgentis orationem gestus vulgaris magis quam ex arte, qui contrahit alterno celerique motu et explicat manum.
3.103. Again, there is the somewhat unusual gesture in which the hand is hollowed and raised well above the shoulder with a motion suggestive of exhortation. The tremulous motion now generally adopted by foreign schools is, however, fit only for the stage. I do not know why some persons disapprove of the movement of the fingers, with their tops converging, towards the mouth. For we do this when we are slightly surprised, and at times also employ it to express fear or entreaty when we are seized with sudden indignation.
3.103. et illa cava et rara et supra humeri altitudinem elata cum quodam motu velut hortatrix manus; a peregrinis scholis tamen prope recepta tremula scenica est., cum summi coierunt, ad os referre, cur quibusdam displicuerit, nescio. id et leviter admirantes et interim subita indignatione velut pavescentes et deprecantes facimus.
3.104. Further, we sometimes clench the hand and press it to our breast when we are expressing regret or anger, an occasion when it is not unbecoming even to force the voice through the teeth in phrases such as “What shall I do now?” “What would you do?” To point at something with the thumb turned back is a gesture which is in general just, but is not, in my opinion, becoming to an orator.
3.104. compressam etiam manum in paenitentia vel ira pectori admouemus, ubi vox vel inter dentes expressa non dedecet: nunc agant? facias? Averso pollice demonstrare aliquid, receptum magis puto quam oratori decorum.
3.105. Motion is generally divided into six kinds, but circular motion must be regarded as a seventh. The latter alone is faulty when applied to gesture. The remaining motions— that is, forward, to right or left and up or down—all have their significance, but the gesture is never directed to what lies behind us, though we do at times throw the hand back.
3.105. cum omnis motus sex partes habeat, septimus sit ille, qui in se redit, orbis. est una circumversio: reliqui ante nos et dextra laevaque et sursum et deorsum aliquid ostendunt; in posteriora gestus non dirigitur.
3.106. The best effect is produced by letting the motion of the hand start from the left and end on the right, but this must be done gently, the hand sinking to rest and avoiding all appearance of giving a blow, although at the end of a sentence it may sometimes be allowed to drop, but must quickly be raised again: or it may occasionally, when we desire to express wonder or dissent, spring back with a rapid motion. In this connexion the earlier instructors in the art of gesture rightly added that the movement of the hand should begin: and end with the thought that is expressed. Otherwise the gesture will anticipate or lag behind the voice, both of which produce an unpleasing effect.
3.106. tamen velut reici solet. autem manus a sinistra parte incipit, in dextra deponitur, sed ut ponere non ut ferire videatur; quanquam et in fine interim cadit, ut cito tamen redeat, et nonnunquam resilit vel negantibus nobis vel admirantibus. veteres artifices illud recte adiecerunt, ut manus cum sensu et inciperet et deponeretur. enim aut ante vocem erit gestus aut post vocem, quod est utrumque deforme.
3.107. Some, through excess of subtlety, have erroneously prescribed that there should be an interval of three words between each movement; but this rule is never observed, nor can it be. These persons, however, were desirous that there should be some standard of speed or slowness (a most rational desire), with a view to avoid prolonged inactivity on the part of the hands as well as the opposite fault, into which so many fall, of breaking up the natural flow of their delivery by continual motion.
3.107. illo lapsi nimia subtilitate sunt, quod intervallum motus tria verba esse voluerunt; quod neque observatur neque fieri potest, sed illi quasi mensuram tarditatis celeritatisque aliquam esse voluerunt, neque immerito, ne aut diu otiosa esset manus aut, quod multi faciunt, actionem continue motu concideret.
3.108. There is another still more common error, which is less easy of detection. Language possesses certain imperceptible stresses, indeed we might almost call them feet, to which the gesture of most speakers conforms. Thus there will he one movement at novum crimen, another at Giai Caesar, a third at et ante diem, a fourth at non auditum, a fifth at propinquus meus, a sixth at ad te and others at Quintus Tubero and detulit.
3.108. est, quod et fit frequentius et magis fallit. quaedam latentes sermonis percussiones et quasi aliqui pedes, ad quos plurimorum gestus cadit, ut sit unus motus crimen, alter C. Caesar, tertius et ante hanc diem, quartus non auditum, deinde propinquus meus, et ad te, et Quintus Tubero, et detulit.
3.109. From this springs a further error, namely, that young men, when writing out their speeches, devise all their gestures in advance and consider as they compose how the hand is to fall at each particular point. A further unfortunate result is that the movement of the hand, which should end on the right, frequently finishes on the left.
3.109. id quoque fluit vitium, ut iuvenes, cum scribunt, gestum praemodulati cogitatione sic componant, quomodo casura manus est. et illud vitium, ut gestus, qui in fine dexter esse debet, in sinistrum frequenter desinat.
3.110. It is therefore better, in view of the fact that all speech falls into a number of brief clauses, at the end of which we can take breath, if necessary, to arrange our gesture to suit these sections. For example, the words novum crimes, Gai Caesar, in a sense form a phrase complete in itself, since they are followed by a conjunction, while the next words, et ante hanc diem non auditum, are also sufficiently self-contained. To these phrases the motions of the hand must be conformed, before the speech has passed beyond the calmness of tone on which it opens.
3.110. illud, cum sint in sermone omni brevia quaedam membra, ad quae, si necesse sit, recipere spiritum liceat, ad haec gestum disponere: ut puta crimen, C. Caesar, habet per se fine quendam suum, quia sequitur coniunctio; deinde et ante hanc diem non auditum satis circumscriptum est. haec commodanda manus est, idque dum erit prima et composita actio.
3.111. But when increasing warmth of feeling has fired the orator, the gesture will become more frequent, in keeping with the impetus of the speech. Some places are best suited by a rapid, and others by a restrained delivery. In the one case we pass rapidly on, fire a volley of arguments and hurry upon our way; in the other, we drive home our points, force them on the hearer and implant them in his mind. But the slower the delivery, the greater its emotional power: thus, Rosins was rapid and ESOPs weighty in his delivery, because the former was a comic and the latter a tragic actor.
3.111. ubi eam calor concitaverit; etiam gestus cum ipsa orationis celeritate crebrescet. locis citata, aliis pressa conveniet pronuntiatio. transcurrimus, congerimus, festinamus; hac instamus, inculcamus, infigimus. autem adfectus habent lentiora; ideoque Roscius citatior, Aesopus gravior fuit, quod ille comoedias, hic tragoedias egit.
3.112. The same rule applies to the movemints. Consequently on the stage young men and old, soldiers and married women all walk sedately, while slaves, maidservants, parasites and fishermen are more lively in their movements. But instructors in the art of gesture will not permit the hand to be raised above the level of the eyes or lowered beneath that of the breast; since it is thought a grave blemish to lift it to the top of the head or lower it to the lower portions of the belly.
3.112. motus quoque observatio est. in fabulis iuvenum, senum, militum, matronarum gravior ingressus est; servi, ancillulae, parasiti, piscatores citatius moventur. autem manum artifices supra oculos, demitti infra pectus vetant; adeo a capite eum petere aut ad imum ventrem deducere, vitiosum habetur.
3.113. It may be moved to the left within the limits of the shoulder, but no further without loss of decorum. On the other hand, when, to express our aversion, we thrust our hand out to the left, the left shoulder must be brought forward in unison with the head, which will incline to the right.
3.113. sinistrum intra humerum promovetur; ultra non decet. cum aversantes in laevam partem velut propellemus manum, sinister humerus proferendus, ut cum capite ad dextram ferente consentiat.
3.114. It is never correct to employ the left hand alone in gesture, though it will often conform its motion to that of the right, as, for example, when we are counting our arguments on the fingers, or turn the palms of the hands to the left to express our horror of something, or thrust them out in front or spread them out to right and left, or lower them in apology or supplication (though the gesture is not the same in these two cases), or raise them in adoration, or stretch them out in demonstration or invocation, as in the passage, “Ye hills and groves of Alba,” or in the passage from Gracchus: “Whither, alas!
3.114. sinistra numquam sola gestum recte facit; dextrae se frequenter accommodat, sive in digitos argumenta digerimus sive aversas in sinistrum palmis abominamur sive obicimus adversas sive in latus utramque distendimus, sive satisfacientes aut supplicantes (diversi autem sunt hi gestus) summittimus sive adorantes attollimus sive aliqua demonstratione aut invocatione protendimus: Albani tumuli atque luci, aut Gracchanum illud: me miser conferam?
3.115. shall I turn me? To the Capitol? Nay, it is wet with my brother's blood. To my home?” etc.
3.115. in Capitolium? ad fratris sanguine madet: an domum?
3.116. For in such passages greater emotional effect is produced if both hands co-operate, short gestures being best adapted to matters of small importance and themes of a gentle or melancholy character, and longer gestures to subjects of importance or themes calling for joy or horror.
3.116. enim adfectus in his iunctae exhibent manus; in rebus parvis, mitibus, tristibus breves; magnis, laetis, atrocibus exertiores. Vitia quoque earum subiicienda sunt, quae quidem accidere etiam exercitatis actoribus solent.
3.117. It is desirable also that I should mention the faults in the use of the hands, into which even experienced pleaders are liable to fall. As for the gesture of demanding a cup, threatening a flogging, or indicating the number 500 by crooking the thumb, all of which are recorded by writers on the subject, I have never seen them employed even by uneducated rustics.
3.117. gestum poculum poscentis aut verbera minantis aut numerum quingentorum flexo pollice efficientis, quae sunt a quibusdam scriptoribus notata, ne in rusticis quidem vidi.
3.118. But I know that it is of frequent occurrence for a speaker to expose his side by stretching his arm too far, to be afraid in one case of extending his hand beyond the folds of his cloak, and in another to stretch it as far as it will go, to raise it to the roof, or by swinging it repeatedly over his left shoulder to deliver such a rain of blows to the rear that it is scarcely safe to stand behind him, or to make a circular sweep to the left, or by casting out his hand at random to strike the standers-by or to flap both elbows against his sides.
3.118. ut brachio exerto introspiciatur latus, ut manum alius ultra sinum proferre non audeat, alius, in quantum patet longitudo, protendat aut ad tectum erigat aut repetito ultra laevum humerum gestu ita in tergum flagellet, ut consistere post eum parum tutum sit, aut sinistrum ducat orbem aut temere sparsa manu in proximos offendat aut cubitum utrumque in diversum latus uentilet, saepe scio evenire.
3.119. There are others, again, whose hands are sluggish or tremulous or inclined to saw the air; sometimes, too, the fingers are crooked and brought down with a run from the top of the head, or tossed up into the air with the hand turned palm upwards. There is also a gesture, which consists in inclining the head to the right shoulder, stretching out the arm from the ear and extending the hand with the thumb turned down. This is a special favourite with those who boast that they speak “with uplifted hand.”
3.119. esse et pigra et trepida et secanti similis; interim etiam uncis digitis, ut aut a capite deiciatur aut eadem manu supinata in superiora iactetur. et ille gestus, qui, inclinato in humerum dextrum capite, brachio ab aure protenso, manum infesto pollice extendit; qui quidem maxime place iis, qui se dicere sublata manu iactant.