2.38. We are told that Scaevola, after a game of draughts in which he made the first move and was defeated, went over the whole game again in his mind on his way into the country, and on recalling the move which had cost him the game, returned to tell the man with whom he had been playing, and the latter acknowledged that he was right. Is order, then, I ask you, to be accounted of less importance in a speech, in which it depends entirely on ourselves, whereas in a game our opponent has an equal share in its development?
2.38. vero Scaevola in lusu duodecim scriptorum, cum prior calculum promovisset essetque victus, dum rus tendit, repetito totius certaminis ordine, quo dato errasset recordatus, rediit ad eum, quocum luserat, isque ita factum esse confessus est? idem ordo valebit in oratione, praesertim totus nostro arbitrio constitutus, cum tantum ille valeat alternus?
2.39. Again, if our structure be what it should, the artistic sequence will serve to guide the memory. For just as it is easier to learn verse than prose, so it is easier to learn prose when it is artistically constructed than when it has no such organisation. If these points receive attention, it will be possible to repeat verbatim even such psssages as gave the impression of being delivered extempore. My own memory is of a very ordinary kind, but I found that I could do this with success on occasions when the interruption of a declamation by persons who had a claim to such a courtesy forced me to repeat part of what I had said. There are persons still living, who were then present to witness if I lie.
2.39. quae bene composita erunt, memoriam serie sua ducent. sicut facilius versus ediscimus quam prosam orationem, ita prosae vincta quam dissoluta. contingit, ut etiam quae ex tempore videbantur effusa, ad verbum repetita reddantur. meae quoque memoriae mediocritatem sequebatur, si quando interventus aliquorum, qui hunc honorem mererentur, iterare declamationis partem coegisset. est mendacio locus, salvis qui interfuerunt.
2.40. However, if anyone asks me what is the one supreme method of memory, I shall reply, practice and industry. The most important thing is to learn much by heart and to think much, and, if possible, to do this daily, since there is nothing that is more increased by practice or impaired by neglect than memory.
2.40. quis tamen unam maximamque a me artem memoriae quaerat, exercitatio est et labor; multa ediscere, multa cogitare, et si fieri potest cotidie, potentissimum est. aeque vel augetur cura vel negligentia intercidit.
2.41. Therefore boys should, as I have already urged, learn as much as possible by heart at the earliest stage, while all who, whatever their age, desire to cultivate the power of memory, should endeavour to swallow the initial tedium of reading and re-reading what they have written or read, a process which we may compare to chewing the cud. This task will be rendered less tiresome if we begin by confining ourselves to learning only a little at a time, in amounts not sufficient to create disgust: we may then proceed to increase the amount by a line a day, an addition which will not sensibly increase the labour of learning, until at last the amount we can attack will know no limits. We should begin with poetry and then go on to oratory, while finally we may attempt passages still freer in rhythm and less akin to ordinary speech, such, for example, as passages from legal writers.
2.41. et pueri statim, ut praecepi, quam plurima ediscant, et, quaecunque aetas operam iuvandae studio memoriae dabit, devoret initio taedium illud et scripta et lecta saepius revolvendi et quasi eundem cibum remandendi. ipsum hoc fieri potest levius, si pauca primum et quae odium non adferant coeperimus ediscere, tum cotidie adiicere singulos versus, quorum accessio labori sensum incrementi non adferat, in summam ad infinitum usque perveniat, et poetica prius, tum oratorum, novissime etiam solutiora numeris et magis ab usu dicendi remota, qualia sunt iurisconsultorum.
2.42. For passages intended as an exercise should be somewhat difficult in character if they are to make it easy to achieve the end for which the exercise is designed; just as athletes train the muscles of their hands by carrying weights of lead, although in the actual contests their hands will be empty and free. Further, I must not omit the fact, the truth of which our daily practice will teach us, that in the case of the slower type of mind the memory of recent events is far from being exact.
2.42. enim debent esse, quae exercent, quo sit levius ipsum illud, in quod exercent, ut athletae ponderibus plumbeis adsuefaciunt manus, quibus vacuis et nudis in certamine utendum est. omittam etiam, quod cotidianis experimentis deprehenditur, minime fidelem esse paulo tardioribus ingeniis recentem memoriam.
2.43. It is a curious fact, of which the reason is not obvious, that the interval of a single night will greatly increase the strength of the memory, whether this be due to the fact that it has rested from the labour, the fatigue of which constituted the obstacle to success, or whether it be that the power of recollection, which is the most important element of memory, undergoes a process of ripening and maturing during the time which intervenes. Whatever the cause, things which could not be recalled on the spot are easily co-ordinated the next day, and time itself, which is generally accounted one of the causes of forgetfulness, actually serves to strengthen the memory.
2.43. dictu est nec in promptu ratio, quantum nox interposita adferat firmitatis, sive requiescit labor ille, cuius sibi ipsa fatigatio obstabat, sive maturatur atque concoquitur, quae firmissima eius pars est, recordatio; quae statim referri non poterant, contexuntur postera die, confirmatque memoriam illud tempus, quod esse in causa solet oblivionis.
2.44. On the other hand, the abnormally rapid memory fails as a rule to last and takes its leave as though, its immediate task accomplished, it had no further duties to perform. And indeed there is nothing surprising in the fact that things which have been implanted in the memory for some time should have a greater tendency to stay there. The difference between the powers of one mind and another, to which I have just referred, gives rise to the question whether those who are intending to speak should learn their speeches verbatim or whether it is sufficient to get a good grasp of the essence and the order of what they have got to say. To this problem no answer is possible that will be of universal application.
2.44. illa praevelox fere cito effluit, et, velut praesenti officio functa nihil in posterum debeat, tanquam dimissa discedit. est mirum, magis haerere animo quae diutius adfixa sint. hac ingeniorum diversitate nata dubitatio est, ad verbum sit ediscendum dicturis, an vim modo rerum atque ordinem complecti satis sit; de quo sine dubio non potest in universum pronuntiari.
2.45. Give me a reliable memory and plenty of time, and I should prefer not to permit a single syllable to escape me: otherwise writing would be superfluous. It is specially important to train the young to such precision, and the memory should be continually practised to this end, that we may never learn to become indulgent to its failure. For this reason I regard it as a mistake to permit the student to be prompted or to consult his manuscript, since such practices merely encourage carelessness, and no one will ever realise that he has not got his theme by heart, if he has no fear of forgetting it.
2.45. si memoria suffragatur, tempus non defuit, nulla me velim syllaba effugiat; alioqui etiam scribere sit supervacuum. praecipue a pueris obtinendum, atque in hanc consuetudinem memoria exercitatione redigenda, ne nobis discamus ignoscere. et admoneri et ad libellum respicere vitiosum, quod libertatem negligentiae facit, nec quisquam se parum tenere iudicat, quod, ne sibi excidat, non timet.
2.46. It is this which causes interruptions in the flow of speech and makes the orator's language halting and jerky, while he seems as though he were learning what he says by heart and loses all the grace that a well-written speech can give, simply by the fact that he makes it obvious that he has written it. On the other hand, a good memory will give us credit for quickness of wit as well, by creating the impression that our words have not been prepared in the seclusion of the study, but are due to the inspiration of the moment, an impression which is of the utmost assistance both to the orator and to his cause.
2.46. interruptus actionis impetus et resistens ac salebrosa oratio; et qui dicit ediscenti similis, etiam omnem bene scriptorum gratiam perdit vel hoc ipso, quod scripsisse se confitetur. autem facit etiam prompti ingenii famam, ut illa, quae dicimus, non domo attulisse sed ibi protinus sumpsisse videamur; quod et oratori et ipsi causae plurimum confert.
2.47. For the judge admires those words more and fears them less which he does not suspect of having been specially prepared beforehand to outwit him. Further, we must make it one of our chief aims in pleading to deliver passages which have been constructed with the utmost care, in such manner as to make it appear that they are but casually strung together, and to suggest that we are thinking out and hesitating over words which we have, as a matter of fact, carefully prepared in advance.
2.47. et magis miratur et minus timet iudex, quae non putat adversus se praeparata. in actionibus inter praecipua servandum est, ut quaedam etiam, quae optime vinximus, velut soluta enuntiemus et cogitantibus nonnunquam et dubitantibus similes quaerere videamur quae attulimus.
2.48. It should now be clear to all what is the best course to adopt for the cultivation of memory. If, however, our memory be naturally somewhat dull or time presses, it will be useless to tie ourselves down rigidly to every word, since if we forget any one of them, the result may be awkward hesitation or even a tongue-tied silence. It is, therefore, far safer to secure a good grasp of the facts themselves and to leave ourselves free to speak as we will.
2.48. quid sit optimum, neminem fugit. vero aut memoria natura durior erit aut non suffragabitur tempus, etiam inutile erit ad omnia se verba adligare, cum oblivio unius eorum cuiuslibet aut deformem haesitationem aut etiam silentium inducat, tutiusque multo comprehensis animo rebus ipsis libertatem sibi eloquendi relinquere.
2.49. For the loss of even a single word that we have chosen is always a matter for regret, and it is hard to supply a substitute when we are searching for the word that we had written. But even this is no remedy for a weak memory, except for those who have acquired the art of speaking extempore. But if both memory and this gift be lacking, I should advise the would-be orator to abandon the toil of pleading altogether and, if he has any literary capacity, to betake himself by preference to writing. But such a misfortune will be of but rare occurrence.
2.49. et invitus perdit quisque id quod elegerat verbum, nec facile reponit aliud, dum id, quod scripserat, quaerit. ne hoc quidem infirmae memoriae remedium est nisi in iis, qui sibi facultatem aliquam dicendi ex tempore paraverunt. cui utrumque defuerit, huic omittere omnino totum actionum laborem ac, si quid in litteris valet, ad scribendum potius suadebo convertere. haec rara infelicitas erit.
2.50. For the rest there are many historical examples of the power to which memory may be developed by natural aptitude and application. Themistocles is said to have spoken excellently in Persian after a year's study; Mithridates is recorded to have known twenty-two languages, that being the number of the different nations included in his empire; Crassus, surnamed the Rich, when commanding in Asia had such a complete mastery of five different Greek dialects, that he would give judgement in the dialect employed by the plaintiff in putting forward his suit; Cyrus is believed to have known the name of every soldier in his army, while Theodectes is actually said to have been able to repeat any number of verses after only a single hearing.
2.50. quantum natura studioque valeat memoria, vel Themistocles testis, quem unum intra annum optime locutum esse Persice constat; vel Mithridates, cui duas et viginti linguas, quot nationibus imperabat, traditur notas fuisse; vel Crassus ille Dives, qui, cum Asiae praeesset, quinque Graeci sermonis differentias sic tenuit ut, qua quisque apud eum lingua postulasset, eadem ius sibi redditum ferret; vel Cyrus, quem omnium militum tenuisse creditum est nomina.
2.51. I remember that it used to be alleged that there were persons still living who could do the same, though I never had the good fortune to be present at such a performance. Still, we shall do well to have faith in such miracles, if only that he who believes may also hope to achieve the like.
2.51. semel auditos quamlibet multos versus protinus dicitur reddidisse Theodectes. etiam nunc esse, qui facerent, sed mihi nunquam, ut ipse interessem, contigit; habenda tamen fides est vel in hoc ut, qui crediderit, et speret.
3.1. III. Delivery is often styled action. But the first name is derived from the voice, the second from the gesture. For Cicero in one passage speaks of action as being a form of speech, and in another as being a kind of physical eloquence. None the less, he divides action into two elements, which are the same as the elements of delivery, namely, voice and movement. Therefore, it matters not which term we employ.
3.1. a plerisque actio dicitur, sed prius nomen a voce, sequens a gestu videtur accipere. actionem Cicero alias quasi sermonem alias eloquentiam quandam corporis dicit. tamen duas eius partes facit, quae sunt eaedem pronuntiationis, vocem atque motum.
3.2. But the thing itself has an extraordinarily powerful effect in oratory. For the nature of the speech that we have composed within our minds is not so important as the manner in which we produce it, since the emotion of each member of our audience will depend on the impression made upon his hearing. Consequently, no proof, at least if it be one devised by the orator himself, will ever be so secure as not to lose its force if the speaker fails to produce it in tones that drive it home. All emotional appeals will inevitably fall flat, unless they are given the fire that voice, look, and the whole carriage of the body can give them.
3.2. propter utraque appellatione indifferenter uti licet. autem res ipsa miram quandam in orationibus vim ac potestatem; neque enim tam refert, qualia sint, quae intra nosmet ipsos composuimus, quam quo modo efferantur; nam ita quisque, ut audit, movetur. neque probatio ulla, quae modo venit ab oratore, tam firma est, ut non perdat vires suas, nisi adiuvatur adseveratione dicentis. omnes languescant necesse est, nisi voce, vultu, totius prope habitu corporis inardescunt.
3.3. For when we have done all this, we may still account ourselves only too fortunate if we have succeeded in communicating the fire of our passion to the judge: consequently, we can have no hope of moving him if we speak with languor and indifference, nor of preventing him from yielding to the narcotic influence of our own yawns.
3.3. cum haec omnia fecerimus, felices tamen, si nostrum illum ignem iudex conceperit; nedum eum supini securique moveamus, ac non et ipse nostra oscitatione solvatur.
3.4. A proof of this is given by actors in the theatre. For they add so much to the charm even of the greatest poets, that the verse moves us far more when heard than when read, while they succeed in securing a hearing even for the most worthless authors, with the result that they repeatedly win a welcome on the stage that is denied them in the library.
3.4. sunt vel scenici actores, qui et optimis poetarum tantum adiiciunt gratiae, ut nos infinito magis eadem illa audita quam lecta delectent; et vilissimis etiam quibusdam impetrant aures, ut, quibus nullus est in bibliothecis locus, sit etiam frequens in theatris.
3.5. Now if delivery can count for so much in themes which we know to be fictitious and devoid of reality, as to arouse our anger, our tears or our anxiety, how much greater must its effect be when we actually believe what we hear? For my own part I would not hesitate to assert that a mediocre speech supported by all the power of delivery will be more impressive than the best speech unaccompanied by such power.
3.5. in rebus, quas fictas esse scimus et inanes, tantum pronuntiatio potest, ut iram, lacrimas, sollicitudinem adferat, quanto plus valeat necesse est, ubi et credimus? vel mediocre orationem commendatam viribus actionis adfirmarim plus habituram esse momenti quam optimam eadem illa destitutam.
3.6. It was for this reason that Demosthenes, when asked what was the most important thing in oratory, gave the palm to delivery and assigned it second and third place as well, until his questioner ceased to trouble him. We are therefore almost justified in concluding that he regarded it not merely as the first, but as the only virtue of oratory.
3.6. et Demosthenes, quid esset in toto dicendi opere primum, interrogatus pronuntiationi palmam dedit eidemque secundum ac tertium locum, donec ab eo quaeri desineret, ut eam videri posset non praecipuam, sed solam iudicasse;
3.7. This explains why he studied under the instruction of the actor Andronicus with such diligence and success as thoroughly to justify the remark made by Aeschines to the Rhodians when they expressed their admiration of the speech of Demosthenes on behalf of Ctesiphon, “What would you have said if you had heard him yourselves?” Cicero likewise regards action as the supreme element of oratory.
3.7. ideoque ipse tam diligenter apud Andronicum hypocriten studuit, ut admirantibus eius orationem Rhodiis non immerito Aeschines dixisse videatur: si ipsum audissetis? M. Cicero unam in dicendo actionem dominari putat.
3.8. He records that Gnaeus Lentulus acquired a greater reputation by his delivery than by his actual eloquence, and that Gains Gracchus by the same means stirred the whole Roman people to tears when he bewailed his brother's death, while Antonius and Crassus produced a great impression by their command of this quality, though the greatest of all was that produced by Quintus Hortensius. This statement is strongly supported by the fact that the latter's writings fall so far short of the reputation which for so long secured him the first place among orators, then for a while caused him to be regarded as Cicero's rival, and finally, for the remainder of his life assigned him a position second only to that of Cicero, that his speaking must clearly have possessed some charm which we fail to find when we read him.
3.8. Cn. Lentulum plus opinionis consecutum quam eloquentia tradit, eadem C. Gracchum in deflenda fratris nece totius populi Romani lacrimas concitasse, Antonium et Crassum multum valuisse, plurimum vero Q. Hortensium. rei fides est, quod eius scripta tantum intra famam sunt, qua diu princeps oratorum, aliquando aemulus Ciceronis existimatus est, novissime, quoad vixit, secundus, ut appareat placuisse aliquid eo dicente, quod legentes non invenimus.
3.9. And, indeed, since words in themselves count for much and the voice adds a force of its own to the matter of which it speaks, while gesture and motion are full of significance, we may be sure of finding something like perfection when all these qualities are combined.
3.9. hercule cum valeant multum verba per se, et vox propriam vim adiiciat rebus, et gestus motusque significet aliquid, profecto perfectum quiddam fieri, cum omnia coierunt, necesse est.
3.10. There are some, however, who consider that delivery which owes nothing to art and everything to natural impulse is more forcible, and in fact the only form of delivery which is worthy of a manly speaker. But these persons are as a rule identical, either with those who are in the habit of disapproving of care, art, polish and every form of premeditation in actual speaking, as being affected and unnatural, or else with those who (like Lucius Cotta, according to Cicero) affect the imitation of ancient writers both in their choice of words and even in the rudeness of their intonation and rhythm.
3.10. tamen qui rudem illam, et qualem impetus cuiusque animi tulit, actionem iudicent fortiorem et solam viris dignam, sed non alii fere quam qui etiam in dicendo curam et artem et nitorem, et quidquid studio paratur, ut adfectata et parum naturalia solent improbare, vel qui verborum atque ipsius etiam soni rusticitate, ut L. Cottam dicit Cicero fecisse, imitationem antiquitatis adfectant.
3.11. Those, however, who think it sufficient for men to be born to enable them to become orators, are welcome to their opinion, and I must ask them to be indulgent to the efforts to which I am committed by my belief that we cannot hope to attain perfection unless nature is assisted by study. But I will not be so obstinate as to deny that to nature must be assigned the first place.
3.11. illi persuasione sua fruantur, qui hominibus, ut sint oratores, satis putant nasci; nostro labori dent veniam, qui nihil credimus esse perfectum, nisi ubi natura cura iuvetur. hoc igitur non contumaciter consentio primas partes esse naturae.
3.12. For a good delivery is undoubtedly impossible for one who cannot remember what he has written, or lacks the quick facility of speech required by sudden emergencies, or is hampered by incurable impediments of speech. Again, physical uncouthness may be such that no art can remedy it, while a weak voice is incompatible with first-rate excellence in delivery.
3.12. certe bene pronuntiare non poterit, cui aut in scriptis memoria aut in iis, quae subito dicenda erunt, facilitas prompta defuerit, nec si inemendabilia oris incommoda obstabunt. etiam potest esse aliqua tanta deformitas, ut nulla arte vincatur.
3.13. For we may employ a good, strong voice as we will; whereas one that is ugly or feeble not only prevents us from producing a number of effects, such as a crescendo or a sudden fortissimo, but at times forces faults upon us, making us drop the voice, alter its pitch and refresh the hoarseness of the throat and fatigue of the lungs by a hideous chanting intonation. However, let me now turn to consider the speaker on whom my precepts will not be wasted.
3.13. ne vox quidem exilis actionem habere optimam potest. enim firmaque, ut volumus, uti licet; mala vel imbecilla et inhibet multa, ut insurgere et exclamare, et aliqua cogit, ut intermittere et deflectere et rasas faces ac latus fatigatum deformi cantico reficere. nos de eo nunc loquamur, cui non frustra praecipitur.
3.14. All delivery, as I have already said, is concerned with two different things, namely, voice and gesture, of which the one appeals to the eye and the other to the ear, the two senses by which all emotion reaches the soul. But the voice has the first claim on our attention, since even our gesture is adapted to suit it. The first point which calls for consideration is the nature of the voice, the second the manner in which it is used. The nature of the voice depends on its quantity and quality.
3.14. sit autem omnis actio, ut dixi, in duas divisa partes, vocem gestumque, quorum alter oculos, altera aures movet, per quos duos sensus omnis ad animum penetrat adfectus, prius est de voce dicere, cui etiam gestus accommodatur. ea prima observatio est, qualem habeas; secunda, quomodo utaris. vocis spectatur quantitate et qualitate.
3.15. The question of quantity is the simpler of the two, since as a rule it is either strong or weak, although there are certain kinds of voice which fall between these extremes, and there are a number of gradations from the highest notes to the lowest and from the lowest to the highest. Quality, on the other hand, presents more variations; for the voice may be clear or husky, full or thin, smooth or harsh, of wide or narrow compass, rigid or flexible, and sharp or flat, while lung-power may be great or small.
3.15. simplicior; in summa enim grandis aut exigua est, sed inter has extremitates mediae sunt species, et ab ima ad summam ac retro sunt multi gradus. magis varia. est et candida et fusca, et plena et exilis, et lenis et aspera, et contracta et fusa, et dura et flexibilis, et clara et obtusa. etiam longior breviorque.
3.16. It is not necessary for my purpose to enquire into the causes which give rise to these peculiarities. I need not raise the question whether the difference lies in those organs by which the breath is produced, or in those which form the channels for the voice itself; whether the voice has a character of its own or depends on the motions which produce it; whether it be the strength of the lungs, chest or the vocal organs themselves that affords it most assistance, since the co-operation of all these organs is required. For example, it is not the mouth only that produces sweetness of tone; it requires the assistance of the nostrils as well, which carry off what I may describe as the overflow of the voice. The important fact is that the tone must be agreeable and not harsh.
3.16. causas, cur quidque eorum accidat, persequi proposito operi necessarium est: eorumne sit differentia, in quibus aura illa concipitur, an eorum, per quae velut organa meat; ipsi propria natura, an prout movetur; lateris pectorisve firmitas an capitis etiam plus adiuvet. opus est omnibus sicut non oris modo suavitate, sed narium quoque, per quas quod superest vocis egeritur. esse tamen debet non exprobrans sonus.
3.17. The methods of using the voice present great variety. For in addition to the triple division of accents into sharp, grave and circumflex, there are many other forms of intonation which are required: it may be intense or relaxed, high or low, and may move in slow or quick time.
3.17. voce multiplex ratio. praeter illam differentiam, quae est tripertita, acutae, gravis, flexae, tum intentis, tum remissis, tum elatis, tum inferioribus modis opus est, spatiis quoque lentioribus aut citatioribus.
3.18. But here again there are many intermediate gradations between the two extremes, and just as the face, although it consists of a limited number of features, yet possesses infinite variety of expression, so it is with the voice: for though it possesses but few varieties to which we can give a name, yet every human being possesses a distinctive voice of his own, which is as easily distinguished by the ear as are facial characteristics by the eye.
3.18. his ipsis media interiacent multa, et ut facies, quanquam ex paucissimis constat, infinitam habet differentiam, ita vox, etsi paucas, quae nominari possint, continet species, propria cuique est, et non haec minus auribus quam oculis illa dinoscitur.
3.19. The good qualities of the voice, like everything else, are improved by training and impaired by neglect. But the training required by the orator is not the same as that which is practised by the singing-master, although the two methods have many points in common. In both cases physical robustness is essential to save the voice from dwindling to the feeble shrillness that characterises the voices of eunuchs, women and invalids, and the means for creating such robustness are to be found in walking, rubbing-down with oil, abstinence from sexual intercourse, an easy digestion, and, in a word, in the simple life.
3.19. autem sicut omnium, ita vocis quoque bona cura, negligentia minuuntur. cura non eadem oratoribus quae phonascis convenit; tamen multa sunt utrisque communia, firmitas corporis, ne ad spadonum et mulierum et aegrorum exilitatem vox nostra tenuetur; quod ambulatio, unctio, veneris abstinentia, facilis ciborum digestio, id est frugalitas, praestat.
3.20. Further, the throat must be sound, that is to say, soft and smooth; for if the throat be unsound, the voice is broken or dulled or becomes harsh or squeaky. For just as the sound produced in the pipe by the same volume of breath varies according as the stops are closed or open, or the instrument is clogged or cracked, so the voice is strangled if the throat be swollen, and muffled if it is obstructed, while it becomes rasping if the throat is inflamed, and may be compared to an organ with broken pipes in cases where the throat is subject to spasms.
3.20. ut sint fauces integrae, id est molles ac leves, quarum vitio et frangitur et obscuratur et exasperatur et scinditur vox. ut tibiae eodem spiritu accepto alium clausis, alium apertis foraminibus, alium non satis purgatae, alium quassae sonum reddunt, ita fauces tumentes strangulant vocem, obtusae obscurant, rasae exasperant, convulsae fractis sunt organis similes.
3.21. Again, the presence of some obstacle may divide the breath just as a pebble will divide shallow waters, which, although their currents unite again soon after the obstruction is past, still leave a hollow space in rear of the object struck. An excess of moisture also impedes the voice, while a deficiency weakens it. As regards fatigue, its effect is the same as upon the body: it affects the voice not merely at the moment of speaking, but for some time afterwards.
3.21. etiam spiritus obiectu aliquo sicut lapillo tenues aquae, quarum cursus etiamsi ultra paulum coit, aliquid tamen cavi relinquit post id ipsum quod offenderat. quoque vocem ut nimius impedit, ita consumptus destituit. fatigatio, ut corpora, non ad praesens modo tempus, sed etiam in futurum adficit.
3.22. But while exercise, which gives strength in all cases, is equally necessary both for orators and singing-masters, it is a different kind of exercise which they require. For the orator is too much occupied by civil affairs to be able to allot fixed times for taking a walk, and he cannot tune his voice through all the notes of the scale nor spare it exertion, since it is frequently necessary for him to speak in several cases in succession.
3.22. ut communiter et phonascis et oratoribus necessaria est exercitatio, qua omnia convalescent, ita curae non idem genus est. neque certa tempora ad spatiandum dari possunt tot civilibus officiis occupato, nec praeparare ab imis sonis vocem ad summos nec semper a contentione condere licet, cum pluribus iudiciis saepe dicendum sit.
3.23. Nor is the same regime suitable as regards food: for the orator needs a strong and enduring voice rather than one which is soft and sweet, while the singer mellows all sounds, even the highest, by the modulation of his voice, whereas we have often to speak in harsh and agitated tones, must pass wakeful nights, swallow the soot that is produced by the midnight oil and stick to our work though our clothes be dripping with sweat.
3.23. ciborum quidem est eadem observatio. enim tam molli teneraque voce quam forti ac durabili opus est, cum illi omnes etiam altissimos sonos leniant cantu oris, nobis pleraque aspere sint concitateque dicenda et vigilandae noctes et fuligo lucubrationum bibenda et in sudata veste durandum.
3.24. Consequently, we must not attempt to mellow our voice by coddling it nor accustom it to the conditions which it would like to enjoy, but rather give it exercise suited to the tasks on which it will be employed, never allowing it to be impaired by silence, but strengthening it by practice, which removes all difficulties.
3.24. vocem deliciis non molliamus, nec imbuatur ea consuetudine, quam desideratura sit; sed exercitatio eius talis sit qualis usus, ne silentio subsidat, sed firmetur consuetudine, qua difficultas omnis levatur.
3.25. The best method for securing such exercise is to learn passages by heart (for if we have to speak extempore, the passion inspired by our theme will distract us from all care for our voice), while the passages selected for the purpose should be as varied as possible, involving a combination of loud, argumentative, colloquial and modulated utterance, so that we may prepare ourselves for all exigencies simultaneously. This will be sufficient.
3.25. autem, quo exercearis, erit optimum (nam ex tempore dicentes avocat a cura vocis ille, qui ex rebus ipsis concipitur, adfectus) et ediscere quam maxime varia, quae et clamorem et disputationem et sermonem et flexus habeant, ut simul in omnia paremur. satis est;
3.26. Otherwise your delicate, over trained voice will succumb before any unusual exertion, like bodies accustomed to the oil of the training school, which for all the imposing robustness which they display in their own contests, yet, if ordered to make a day's march with the troops, to carry burdens and mount guard at night, would faint beneath the task and long for their trainers to rub them down with oil and for the free perspiration of the naked limbs.
3.26. alioqui nitida illa et curata vox insolitum laborem recusabit, ut assueta gymnasiis et oleo corpora, quamlibet sint in suis certaminibus speciosa atque robusta, si militare iter fascemque et vigilias imperes, deficiant et quaerant unctores suos nudumque sudorem.
3.27. Who would tolerate me if in a work such as this I were to prescribe avoidance of exposure to sun, wind, rain or parching heat? If we are called upon to speak in the sun or on a windy, wet or warm day, is that a reason for deserting the client whom we have undertaken to defend? While as for the warning given by some that the orator should not speak when dyspeptic, replete or drunk, or immediately after vomiting, I think that no sane person would dream of declaiming under such circumstances.
3.27. quidem in hoc opere praecipi quis ferat vitandos soles atque ventos et nubila etiam ac siccitates?, si dicendum in sole aut ventoso, humido, calido die fuerit, reos deseremus? crudum quidem aut saturum aut ebrium aut eiecto modo vomitu, quae cavenda quidam monent, declamare neminem, qui sit mentis compos, puto.
3.28. There is, however, good reason for the rule prescribed by all authorities, that the voice should not be overstrained in the years of transition between boyhood and manhood, since at that period it is naturally weak, not, I think, on account of heat, as some allege (for there is more heat in the body at other periods), but rather on account of moisture, of which at that age there is a superabundance.
3.28. non sine causa est ab omnibus praeceptum, ut parcatur maxime voci in illo a pueritia in adolescentiam transitu, quia naturaliter impeditur, non, ut arbitror, propter calorem, quod quidam putaverunt (nam est maior alias), sed propter humorem potius; nam hoc aetas illa turgescit.
3.29. For this reason the nostrils and the breast swell at this stage, and all the organs develop new growth, with the result that they are tender and liable to injury. However, to return to the point, the best and most realistic form of exercise for the voice, once it has become firm and set, is, in my opinion, the practice of speaking daily just as we plead in the courts. For thus, not merely do the voice and lungs gain in strength, but we acquire a becoming deportment of the body and develop grace of movement suited to our style of speaking.
3.29. nares etiam ac pectus eo tempore tument, atque omnia velut germinant eoque sunt tenera et iniuriae obnoxia., ut ad propositum redeam, iam confirmatae constitutaeque voci genus exercitationis optimum duco, quod est operi simillimum, dicere cotidie sicut agimus. hoc modo non vox tantum confirmatur et latus, sed etiam corporis decens et accommodatus orationi motus componitur.
3.30. The rules for delivery are identical with those for the language of oratory itself. For, as our language must be correct, clear, ornate and appropriate, so with our delivery; it will be correct, that is, free from fault, if our utterance be fluent, clear, pleasant and “urbane,” that is to say, free from all traces of a rustic or a foreign accent.
3.30. alia est autem ratio pronuntiationis quam ipsius orationis. ut illa emendata, dilucida, ornata, apta esse debet, ita haec quoque emendata erit, id est, vitio carebit, si fuerit os facile, explanatum, iucundum, urbanum, id est, in quo nulla neque rusticitas neque peregrinitas resonet.
3.31. For there is good reason for the saying we so often hear, “He must be a barbarian or a Greek”: since we may discern a man's nationality from the sound of his voice as easily as we test a coin by its ring. If these qualities be present, we shall have those harmonious accents of which Ennius expresses his approval when he describes Cethegus as one whose “words rang sweetly,” and avoid the opposite effect, of which Cicero expresses his disapproval by saying, “They bark, not plead.” For there are many faults of which I spoke in the first book when I discussed the method in which the speech of children should be formed, since I thought it more appropriate to mention them in connexion with a period of life when it is still possible to correct them.
3.31. enim sine causa dicitur barbarum Graecumve. sonis homines ut aera tinnitu dinoscimus. fiet illud, quod Ennius probat, cum dicit suaviloquenti ore Cethegum fuisse, non quod Cicero in his reprehendit, quos ait latrare non agere. enim multa vitia, de quibus dixi, cum in quadam primi libri parte puerorum ora formarem, opportunius ratus, in ea aetate facere illorum mentionem, in qua emendari possunt.
3.32. Again, the delivery may be described as correct if the voice be sound, that is to say, exempt from any of the defects of which I have just spoken, and if it is not dull, coarse, exaggerated, hard, stiff, hoarse or thick, or again, thin, hollow, sharp, feeble, soft or effeminate, and if the breath is neither too short nor difficult to sustain or recover.
3.32. si ipsa vox primum fuerit, ut sic dicam, sana, id est, nullum eorum, de quibus modo rettuli, patietur incommodum; deinde non subsurda, rudis, immanis, dura, rigida, rava, praepinguis, aut tenuis, inanis, acerba, pusilla, mollis, effeminata, spiritus nec brevis nec parum durabilis nec in receptu difficilis.
3.33. The delivery will be clear if, in the first place, the words are uttered in their entirety, instead of being swallowed or clipped, as is so often the case, since too many people fail to complete the final syllables through over-emphasising the first. But although words must be given their full phonetic value, it is a tiresome and offensive trick to pronounce every letter as if we were entering them in an inventory.
3.33. vero erit pronuntiatio prinum, si verba tota exierint, quorum pars devorari, pars destitui solet, plerisque extremas syllabas non perferentibus, dum priorum sono indulgent. est autem necessaria uerborum explanatio, ita omnes imputare et velut adnumerare litteras molestum et odiosum.
3.34. For vowels frequently coalesce and some consonants disappear when followed by a vowel. I have already given an example of both these occurrences:— mullum ille et terris.
3.34. et vocales frequentissime coeunt, et consonantium quaedam insequente vocali dissimulantur. exemplum posuimus:ille et terrisVitatur etiam duriorum inter se congressus, unde pellexit et collegit, et quae alio loco dicta sunt;
3.35. Further, we avoid placing two consonants near each other when their juxtaposition would cause a harsh sound; thus, we say pellexit and collegiate and employ other like forms of which I have spoken elsewhere. It is with this in mind that Cicero praises Catulus for the sweetness with which he pronounced the various letters. The second essential for clearness of delivery is that our language should be properly punctuated, that is to say, the speaker must begin and end at the proper place. It is also necessary to note at what point our speech should pause and be momentarily suspended (which the Greeks term ὑποδιαστολὴ and ὑποστιγμὴ and when it should come to a full stop.
3.35. ideoque laudatur in Catulo suavis appellatio litterarum. Secundum est, ut sit oratio distincta, id est, qui dicit, et incipiat ubi oportet et desinat. etiam, quo loco sustinendus et quasi suspendendus sermo sit, quod Graeci ὑποδιαστολήν vel ὑποστιγμήν vocant, quo deponendus.
3.36. After the words arma virumque cano there is a momentary suspension, because virum is connected with what follows, the full sense being given by virum Troiae qui primus ab oris, after which there is a similar suspension. For although the mention of the hero's destination introduces an idea different from that of the place whence he came, the difference does not call for the insertion of a stop, since both ideas are expressed by the same verb venit.
3.36. virumque cano, quia illud virum ad sequentia pertinet, ut sit virum Troiae qui primus ab oris, et hic iterum. etiamsi aliud est, unde venit quam quo venit, non distinguendum tamen, quia utrumque eodem verbo continetur venit.
3.37. After Italiam comes a third pause, since fato profugus is parenthetic and breaks up the continuity of the phrase Italian, Lavinaque. For the same reason there is a fourth pause after profulgus. Then follows Lavinaque venit litora, where a stop must be placed, as at this point a new sentence begins. But stops themselves vary in length, according as they mark the conclusion of a phrase or a sentence.
3.37. Italiam, quia interiectio est fato profugus et continuum sermonem, qui faciebat Italiam Lavinaque, dividit. eandemque causam quarto profugus, deinde Lavinaque venit litora, ubi iam erit distinctio, quia inde alius incipit sensus. in ipsis etiam distinctionibus tempus alias brevius, alias longius dabimus; interest enim, sermonem finiant an sensum.
3.38. Thus after litora I shall pause and continue after taking breath. But when I come to atque altae moenia Romae I shall make a full stop, halt and start again with the opening of a fresh sentence.
3.38. illam distinctionem protinus altero spiritus initio insequar; cum illuc venero altae moenia Romae, deponam et morabor et novum rursus exordium faciam.
3.39. There are also occasionally, even in periods, pauses which do not require a fresh breath. For although the sentence in coetu vero populi Romani, negotium publicumn gerens, magister equilum, etc., contains a number of different cola, expressing a number of different thoughts, all these cola are embraced by a single period: consequently, although short pauses are required at the appropriate intervals, the flow of the period as a whole must not be broken. On the other hand, it is at times necessary to take breath without any perceptible pause: in such cases we must do so surreptitiously, since if we take breath unskilfully, it will cause as much obscurity as would have resulted from faulty punctuation. Correctness of punctuation may seem to be but a trivial merit, but without it all the other merits of oratory are nothing worth.
3.39. aliquando et sine respiratione quaedam morae etiam in periodis. enim illa coetu vero populi Romani, negotium publicum gerens, magister equitum, et., multa membra habent (sensus enim sunt alii atque alii), sed unam circumductionem, ita paulum morandum in his intervallis, non interrumpendus est contextus. e contrario spiritum interim recipere sine intellectu morae necesse est, quo loco quasi surripiendus est; alioqui si inscite recipiatur, non minus adferat obscuritatis quam vitiosa distinctio. autem distinguendi fortasse sit parva; sine qua tamen esse nulla alia in agendo potest.
3.40. Delivery will be ornate when it is supported by a voice that is easy, strong, rich, flexible, firm, sweet, enduring, resonant, pure, carrying far and penetrating the ear (for there is a type of voice which impresses the hearing not by its volume, but by its peculiar quality): in addition, the voice must be easily managed and must possess all the necessary inflexions and modulations, in fact it must, as the saying is, be a perfect instrument, equipped with every stop: further, it must have strong lungs to sustain it, and ample breathing power that will be equal to all demands upon it, however fatiguing.
3.40. est pronuntiatio, cui suffragatur vox facilis, magna te, beata, flexibilis, firma, dulcis, durabilis, clara, pura, secans aëra et auribus sedens (est enim quaedam ad auditum accommodata non magnitudine, sed proprietate), ad hoc velut tractabilis, utique habens omnes in se qui desiderantur sinus intentionesque et toto, ut aiunt, organo instructa; cui aderit lateris firmitas, spiritus cum spatio pertinax, tum labori non facile cessurus.
3.41. The deepest bass and the highest treble notes are unsuited to oratory: for the former lack clearness and, owing to their excessive fullness, have no emotional power, while the latter are too thin and, owing to excess of clearness, give an impression of extravagance and are incompatible with the inflexions demanded by delivery and place too great a strain upon the voice.
3.41. gravissimus autem in musica sonus nec acutissimus orationibus convenit. et hic parum clarus nimiumque plenus nullum adferre animis motum potest, et ille praetenuis et immodicae claritatis, cum est ultra verum, tum neque pronuntiatione flecti neque diutius ferre intentionem potest.
3.42. For the voice is like the strings of a musical instrument; the slacker it is the deeper and fuller the note produced, whereas if it be tightened, the sound becomes thinner and shriller. Consequently, the deepest notes lack force, and the higher run the risk of cracking the voice. The orator will, therefore, employ the intermediate notes, which must be raised when we speak with energy and lowered when we adopt a more subdued tone.
3.42. vox ut nervi, quo remissior, hoc gravior et plenior, quo tensior, hoc tennis et acuta magis est. ina vim non habet, summa rumpi periclitatur. ergo utendum sonis, hique tum augenda intentione excitandi, tum summittenda sunt temperandi.
3.43. For the first essential of a good delivery is evenness. The voice must not run joltingly, with irregularity of rhythm and sound, mixing long and short syllables, grave accents and acute, tones loud and low, without discrimination, the result being that this universal unevenness produces the impression of a limping gait. The second essential is variety of tone, and it is in this alone that delivery really consists.
3.43. prima est observatio recte pronuntiandi aequalitas, ne sermo subsultet imparibus spatiis ac sonis, miscens longa brevibus, gravia acutis, elata summissis, et inaequalitate horum omnium sicut pedum claudicet; secunda varietas, quod solum est pronuntiatio.
3.44. I must warn my readers not to fall into the error of supposing that evenness and variety are incompatible with one another, since the fault opposed to evenness is unevenness, while the opposite of variety is that which the Greeks term μονοείδεια, or uniformity of aspect. The art of producing variety not merely charms and refreshes the ear, but, by the very fact that it involves a change of effort, revives the speaker's flagging energies. It is like the relief caused by changes in position, such as are involved by standing, walking, sitting and lying, none of which can be endured for a long time together.
3.44. ne quis pugnare inter se putet aequalitatem et varietatem, cum illi virtuti contrarium vitium sit inaequalitas, huic, quod dicitur μονοείδεια, quasi quidam unus aspectus. porro variandi cum gratiam praebet ac renovat aures, tum dicentem ipsa laboris mutatione reficit, ut standi, ambulandi, sedendi, iacendi vices sunt, nihilque eorum pati unum diu possumus.
3.45. But the most important point (which I shall proceed to discuss a little later) is the necessity of adapting the voice to suit the nature of the various subjects on which we are speaking and the moods that they demand: otherwise our voice will be at variance with our language. We must, therefore, avoid that which the Greeks call monotony, that is to say, the unvarying exertion both of lungs and voice. By this I do not simply mean that we must avoid saying everything in a loud tone, a fault which amounts to madness, or in a colloquial tone, which creates an impression of lifelessness, or in a subdued murmur, which is utterly destructive of all vigour.
3.45. vero maximum (sed id paulo post tractabimus), quod secundum rationem rerum, de quibus dicimus, animorumque habitus conformanda vox est, ne ab oratione discordet. igitur illam, quae Graece μονοτονία vocatur, una quaedam spiritus ac soni intentio; non solum ne dicamus omnia clamose, quod insanum est, aut intra loquendi modum, quod motu caret, aut summisso murmure, quo etiam debilitatur omnis intentio;
3.46. What I mean is this: within the limits of one passage and the compass of one emotion we may vary our tone to a certain, though not a very great extent, according as the dignity of the language, the nature of the thought, the conclusion and opening of our sentences or transitions from one point to another, may demand. Thus, those who paint in monochrome still represent their objects in different planes, since otherwise it would have been impossible to depict even the limbs of their figures.
3.46. sed ut in iisdem partibus iisdemque adfectibus sint tamen quaedam non ita magnae vocis declinationes, prout aut verborum dignitas aut sententiarum natura aut depositio aut inceptio aut transitus postulabit: ut, qui singulis pinxerunt coloribus, alia tamen eminentiora alia reductiora fecerunt, sine quo ne membris quidem suas lineas dedissent.
3.47. Let us take as an example the opening of Cicero's magnificent speech in defence of Milo. Is it not clear that the orator has to change his tone almost at every stop? it is the same face, but the expression is changed. Etsi vereor, iudices, ne turpe sit, pre fortissimo viro dicere incipientem timere.
3.47. enim nobis illud Ciceronis in oratione nobilissima pro Milone principium; nonne ad singulas paene distinctiones quamvis in eadem facie tamen quasi vultus mutandus est? vereor, iudices, ne turpe sit, pro fortissimo viro dicere incipientem timere.
3.48. Although the general tone of the passage is restrained and subdued, since it is not merely an exordium, but the exordium of a man suffering from serious anxiety, still something fuller and bolder is required in the tone, when he says pro fortissiomo viro, than when he says etsi cereor and turpe sit and timere.
3.48. est toto proposito contractum atque summissum, quia et exordium est et solliciti exordium, tamen fuerit necesse est aliquid plenius et erectius, dum dicit fortissimo viro, quam cum vereor et sit et.
3.49. But his second breath must be more vigorous, partly owing to the natural increase of effort, since we always speak our second sentence with less timidity, and partly because he indicates the high courage of Milo: minimeque deceat, cum T. Annius ipse magis de rei publicae salute quam de sua perturbetur. Then he proceeds to something like a reproof of himself: me ad eius causam parem animi maguitudinem adferre non posse.
3.49. secunda respiratio increscat oportet et naturali quodam conatu, quo minus pavide dicimus quae sequuntur, et quod magnitudo animi Milonis ostenditur: deceat, cum T. Annius ipse magis de rei publicae salute quam de sua perturbetur. quasi obiurgatio sui est: ad eius causam parem animi magnitudinem ut ferre non posse.
3.50. The next clause suggests a reflexion on the conduct of others: tamen haec novi iudicii nova forma terret oculos. And then in what follows he opens every stop, as the saying is: qui, quocunque inciderunt, consuetudinem fori et pristinum morem iudiciorum requirunt: while the next clause is even fuller and freer: non enim corona cousessus vester cinctus est, ut solebat.
3.50. invidiosiora: haec novi iudicii nova forma terret oculos. vero iam paene apertis, ut aiunt, tibiis:, quocunque inciderunt, consuetudinem fori et pristinum morem iudiciorum requirunt. sequens latum etiam atque fusum est: enim corona consessus vester cinctus est, ut solebat.
3.51. I have called attention to these points to make it clear that there is a certain variety, not merely in the delivery of cola, but even in that of phrases consisting of one word, a variety the lack of which would make every word seem of equal importance. The voice, however, must not be pressed beyond its powers, for it is liable to be choked and to become less and less clear in proportion to the increase of effort, while at times it will break altogether and produce the sound to which the Greeks have given a name derived from the crowing of cocks before the voice is developed.
3.51. notavi, ut appareret, non solum in membris causae, sed etiam in articulis esse aliquam pronuntiandi uarietatem, sine qua nihil neque maius neque minus est. autem ultra vires urgenda non est. et suffocatur saepe et maiore nisu minus clara est et interim elisa in illum sonum erumpit, cui Graeci nomen a gallorum immaturo cantu dederunt.