3.13. 13. If soils were not different and unlike in their kinds of juices, Syria and Arabia would not be the only places in which the reeds, rushes, and all the plants are aromatic, and in which there are trees bearing frankincense or yielding pepper berries and lumps of myrrh, nor would assafoetida be found only in the stalks growing in Cyrene, but everything would be of the same sort, and produced in the soil of all countries. It is the inclination of the firmament and the force of the sun, as it draws nearer or recedes in its course, that make these diversities such as we find them in different countries and places, through the nature of the soil and its juices. And not only in the case of the things mentioned, but also in that of sheep and cattle. These diversities would not exist if the different properties of soils and their juices were not qualified by the power of the sun.
3.13. Quodsi terra generibus umorum non esset dissimilis et disparata, non tantum in Syria et Arabia in harundinibus et iuncis herbisque omnibus essent odores, neque arbores turiferae, neque piperis darent bacas, nec murrae glaebulae, nec Cyrenis in ferulis laser nasceretur, sed in omni terra regionibus eodem genere omnia procrearentur. has autem varietates terrae umoris qualitatis regionibus et locis inclinatio mundi et solis impetus propius aut longius cursum faciendo tales efficit. nec solum in his rebus, sed etiam in pecoribus et armentis haec non ita similiter efficerentur, nisi proprietates singularum terrarum ⟨umorum⟩ in regionibus ad solis potestatem temperarentur.
3.14. 14. For instance, there are in Boeotia the rivers Cephisus and Melas, in Lucania, the Crathis, in Troy, the Xanthus, and certain springs in the country of the Clazomenians, the Erythraeans, and the Laodiceans. When sheep are ready for breeding at the proper season of the year, they are driven every day during that season to those rivers to drink, and the result is that, however white they may be, they beget in some places whity-brown lambs, in other places gray, and in others black as a raven. Thus, the peculiar character of the liquid, entering their body, produces in each case the quality with which it is imbued. Hence, it is said that the people of Ilium gave the river Xanthus its name because reddish cattle and whity-brown sheep are found in the plains of Troy near that river.
3.14. Sunt enim Boeotiae flumina Cephisos et Melas, Lucanis Crathis, Troia Xanthus inque agris Clazomeniorum et Erythraeorum et Laodicensium fontes. ad ⟨ea⟩ flumina cum pecora suis temporibus anni parantur ad conceptionem partus, per id tempus adiguntur eo cotidie potum, ex eoque, quamvis sint alba, procreant aliis locis leucophaea, aliis locis pulla, aliis coracino colore. ita proprietas liquoris, cum inît in corpus, proseminat intinctam sui cuiusque generis qualitatem. igitur quod in campis Troianis proxime flumen armenta rufa et pecora leucophaea nascuntur, ideo id flumen Ilienses Xanthum appellavisse dicuntur.
3.15. 15. Deadly kinds of water are also found, which run through soil containing a noxious juice, and take in its poisonous quality: for instance, there is said to have been a spring at Terracina, called the spring of Neptune, which caused the death of those who thoughtlessly drank from it. In consequence, it is said that the ancients stopped it up. At Chrobs in Thrace there is a lake which causes the death not only of those who drink of it, but also of those who bathe in it. In Thessaly there is a gushing fount of which sheep never taste, nor does any sort of creature draw near to it, and close by this fount there is a tree with crimson flowers.
3.15. Etiamque inveniuntur aquae genera mortifera, quae per maleficum sucum terrae percurrentia recipiunt in se vim venenatam, uti fuisse dicitur Terracinae fons, qui vocabatur Neptunius, ex quo qui biberant inprudentes, vita privabantur; quapropter antiqui eum obstruxisse dicuntur. et Chrobsi Thracia lacus, ex quo non solum qui biberint, moriuntur, sed etiam qui laverint. item in Thessalia fons est profluens, ex quo fonte nec pecus ullum gustat nec bestiarum genus ullum propius accedit; ad quem fontem proxime est arbor florens purpureo colore.
3.16. 16. In Macedonia, at the place where Euripides is buried, two streams approach from the right and left of his tomb, and unite. By one of these, travellers are in the habit of lying down and taking luncheon, because its water is good; but nobody goes near the stream on the other side of the tomb, because its water is said to be death-dealing. In Arcadia there is a tract of land called Nonacris, which has extremely cold water trickling from a rock in the mountains. This water is called “Water of the Styx,” and no vessel, whether of silver, bronze, or iron, can stand it without flying to pieces and breaking up. Nothing but a mule's hoof can keep it together and hold it, and tradition says that it was thus conveyed by Antipater through his son Iollas into the province where Alexander was staying, and that the king was killed by him with this water.
3.16. Non minus in Macedonia quo loci sepultus est Euripides, dextra ac sinistra monumenti advenientes duo rivi concurrunt in unum, e quibus ad unum accumbentes viatores pransitare solent propter aquae bonitatem, ad rivum autem, qui est ex altera parte monumenti, nemo accedit, quod mortiferam aquam dicitur habere. item est in Arcadia Nonacris nominata terrae regio, quae habet in montibus ex saxo stillantes frigidissimos umores. haec autem aqua Στυγός ὕδωρ nominatur, quam neque argenteum neque aeneum nec ferreum vas potest sustinere, sed dissilit et dissipatur. conservare autem eam et continere nihil aliud potest nisi mulina ungula, qua etiam memoratur ab Antipatro in provinciam, ubi erat Alexander, per Iollam filium perlata esse et ab eo ea aqua regem esse necatum.
3.17. 17. Among the Alps in the kingdom of Cottius there is a water those who taste of which immediately fall lifeless. In the Faliscan country on the Via Campana in the Campus Cornetus is a grove in which rises a spring, and there the bones of birds and of lizards and other reptiles are seen lying. Some springs are acid, as at Lyncestus and in Italy in the Velian country, at Teano in Campania, and in many other places. These when used as drinks have the power of breaking up stones in the bladder, which form in the human body.
3.17. Item Alpibus in Cottii regno est aqua, ex qua qui gustant, statim concidunt. agro autem Falisco via Campana in campo Corneto est lucus, in quo fons oritur, ibique avium et lacertarum reliquarumque serpentium ossa iacentia apparent. Item sunt nonnullae acidae venae fontium, uti Lyncesto et in Italia Velino, Campania Teano aliisque locis pluribus, quae hanc habent virtutem, uti calculos, in vesicis qui nascuntur in corporibus hominum, potionibus discutiant.
3.18. 18. This seems to be due to natural causes, as there is a sharp and acid juice contained in the soil there, which imparts a sharpness to these springs as they issue from it; and so, on entering the body, they disperse all the deposits and concretions, due to the use of other waters, which they find in the body. Why such things are broken up by acid waters we can see from the following experiments. If an egg is left for some time in vinegar, its shell will soften and dissolve. Again, if a piece of lead, which is very flexible and heavy, is put in a vase and vinegar poured over it, and the vase covered and sealed up, the lead will be dissolved and turn into white lead.
3.18. Fieri autem hoc naturaliter ideo videtur, quod acer et acidus sucus subest in ea terra, per quam egredientes venae intinguntur acritudine, et ita, cum in corpus inierunt, dissipant quae ex aquarum subsidentia in corporibus et concrescentia offenderunt. quare autem discutiantur ex acidis eae res, sic possumus animadvertere. ovum in aceto si diutius positum fuerit, cortex eius mollescet et dissolvetur. item plumbum, quod est lentissimum et gravissimum, si in vase conlocatum fuerit et in eo acetum suffusum, id autem opertum et oblitum erit, efficietur, uti plumbum dissolvatur et fiat cerussa.
3.19. 19. On the same principle, copper, which is naturally more solid, will disperse and turn into verdigris if similarly treated. So, also, a pearl. Even rocks of lava, which neither iron nor fire alone can dissolve, split into pieces and dissolve when heated with fire and then sprinkled with vinegar. Hence, since we see these things taking place before our very eyes, we can infer that on the same principle even patients with the stone may, in the nature of things, be cured in like manner by means of acid waters, on account of the sharpness of the potion.
3.19. Eisdem rationibus aes, quod etiam solidiore est natura, similiter curatum si fuerit, dissipabitur et fiet aerugo. item margarita. non minus saxa silicea, quae neque ferrum neque ignis potest per se dissolvere, cum ab igni sunt percalefacta, aceto sparso dissiliunt et dissolvuntur. ergo cum has res ante oculos ita fieri videamus, ratiocinemur isdem rationibus ex acidis propter acritudinem suci etiam calculosos e natura rerum similiter posse curari.
3.20. 20. Then there are springs in which wine seems to be mingled, like the one in Paphlagonia, the water of which intoxicates those who drink of the spring alone without wine. The Aequians in Italy and the tribe of the Medulli in the Alps have a kind of water which causes swellings in the throats of those who drink it.
3.20. Sunt autem etiam fontes uti vino mixti, quemadmodum est unus Paphlagoniae, ex quo eam aquam sine vino potantes fiunt temulenti. Aequiculis autem in Italia et in Alpibus natione Medullorum est genus aquae, quam qui bibunt, efficiuntur turgidis gutturibus.
3.21. 21. In Arcadia is the well-known town of Clitor, in whose territory is a cave with running water which makes people who drink of it abstemious. At this spring, there is an epigram in Greek verses inscribed on stone to the effect that the water is unsuitable for bathing, and also injurious to vines, because it was at this spring that Melampus cleansed the daughters of Proetus of their madness by sacrificial rites, and restored those maidens to their former sound state of mind. The inscription runs as written below:Swain, if by noontide thirst thou art opprestWhen with thy flocks to Cleitor's bounds thou'st hied,Take from this fount a draught, and grant a restTo all thy goats the water nymphs beside.But bathe not in't when full of drunken cheer,Lest the mere vapour may bring thee to bane;Shun my vine-hating spring—Melampus hereFrom madness once washed Proetus' daughters sane,And all th' offscouring here did hide, when theyFrom Argos came to rugged Arcady.
3.21. Arcadia vero civitas est non ignota Clitor, in cuius agris est spelunca profluens aqua, e qua qui biberint, fiunt abstemii. ad eum autem fontem epigramma est in lapide inscriptum hac sententia versibus graecis: eam non esse idoneam ad lavandum, sed etiam inimicam vitibus, quod apud eum fontem Melampus sacrificiis purgavisset rabiem Proeti filiarum restituissetque earum virginum mentes in pristinam sanitatem. epigramma autem est id, quod est subscriptum:ἀγρότα, σὺν ποίμναις τὸ μεσημβρινὸν ἤν σε βαρύνῃδίψος ἀν' ἐσχατιὰς Κλείτορος ἐρχόμενον,ταῖς μὲν ἀπὸ κρήνης ἄρυσαι πόμα καὶ παρὰ νύμφαιςὑδριάσιν στῆσον πᾶν τὸ σὸν αἰπόλιον·ἀλλὰ σὺ μήτ' ἐπὶ λουτρὰ βάλῃς χροί, μή σε καὶ αὔρηπη〈μή〉νῃ〈τερπνῆσ〉ἐντὸς ἐόντα μέθης·φεῦγε δ' ἐμὴν πηγὴν μισάμπελον, ἔνθα Μελάμπουςλυσάμενος λύσσης Προιτίδας ἀρτεμέαςπάντα καθαρμὸν ἔβαψεν ἀπόκρυφον,〈εὖτ' ἄρ' ἀπ' Ἄργουςοὔρεα τρηχείης ἤλυθεν Ἀρκαδίησ〉.
3.22. 22. In the island of Zea is a spring of which those who thoughtlessly drink lose their understanding, and an epigram is cut there to the effect that a draught from the spring is delightful, but that he who drinks will become dull as a stone. These are the verses:This stone sweet streams of cooling drink doth drip,But stone his wits become who doth it sip.
3.22. Item est in insula Cia fons, e quo qui inprudentes biberint, fiunt insipientes, et ibi est epigramma insculptum ea sententia: iucundam eam esse potionem fontis eius, sed qui biberit, saxeos habiturum sensus. sunt autem versus hi:ἡδεῖα ψυχροῦ πόματος λιβάς, ἣν ἀναβάλλειπέτρος ὁ τῆσδε πιών.
3.23. 23. At Susa, the capital of the Persian kingdom, there is a little spring, those who drink of which lose their teeth. An epigram is written there, the significance of which is to this effect, that the water is excellent for bathing, but that taken as drink, it knocks out the teeth by the roots. The verses of this epigram are, in Greek, as follows:Stranger, you see the waters of a springIn which 't is safe for men their hands to lave;But if the weedy basin enteringYou drink of its unpalatable wave,Your grinders tumble out that self-same dayFrom jaws that orphaned sockets will display.
3.23. Susis autem, in qua civitate est regnum Persarum, fonticulus est, ex quo qui biberint, amittunt dentes. item in eo est scriptum epigramma, quod significat hanc sententiam: egregiam esse aquam ad lavandum, sed ea si bibatur, excutere e radicibus dentes. et huius epigrammatos sunt versus graece:ὕδατα κρανάεντα βλέπεις, ξένε, τῶν ἄπο χερσὶνλουτρὰ μὲν ἀνθρώποιἢν δὲ λάβῃς κοίλου βοτανήδεος ἀγλαὸν ὕδωραὐτῆμαρ πριστῆρες ἐπίπτουσιν, γενύων ὀρφανὰ θέντες ἕδη.
3.24. 24. There are also in some places springs which have the peculiarity of giving fine singing voices to the natives, as at Tarsus in Magnesia and in other countries of that kind. Then there is Zama, an African city, which King Juba fortified by enclosing it with a double wall, and he established his royal residence there. Twenty miles from it is the walled town of Ismuc, the lands belonging to which are marked off by a marvellous kind of boundary. For although Africa was the mother and nurse of wild animals, particularly serpents, yet not one is ever born in the lands of that town, and if ever one is imported and put there, it dies at once; and not only this, but if soil is taken from this spot to another place, the same is true there. It is said that this kind of soil is also found in the Balearic Islands. The above mentioned soil has a still more wonderful property, of which I have learned in the following way.
3.24. Sunt etiam nonnullis locis fontium proprietates, quae procreant qui ibi nascuntur egregiis vocibus ad cantandum, uti Tarso, Magnesiae, aliis eiusmodi regionibus. etiamque Zama est civitas Afrorum, cuius moenia rex Iuba duplici muro saepsit ibique regiam domum sibi constituit. ab ea milia passus XX est oppidum Ismuc, cuius agrorum regiones incredibili finitae sunt terminatione. cum esset enim Africa parens et nutrix ferarum bestiarum, maxime serpentium, in eius agris oppidi nulla nascitur, et si quando adlata ibi ponatur, statim moritur; neque id solum, sed etiam terra ex his locis si alio translata fuerit, et ibi. id genus terrae etiam Balearibus dicitur esse. sed aliam mirabiliorem virtutem ea habet terra, quam ego sic accepi.
3.25. 25. Caius Julius, Masinissa's son, who owned all the lands about that town, served with Caesar the father. He was once my guest. Hence, in our daily intercourse, we naturally talked of literary subjects. During a conversation between us on the efficacy of water and its qualities, he stated that there were springs in that country of a kind which caused people born there to have fine singing voices, and that consequently they always sent abroad and bought handsome lads and ripe girls, and mated them, so that their progeny might have not only fine voices but also beautiful forms.
3.25. Gaius Iulius Masinissae filius, cuius erant totius oppidi agrorum possessiones, cum patre Caesare militavit. is hospitio meo est usus. ita cotidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare. interim cum esset inter nos de aquae potestate et eius virtutibus sermo, exposuit esse in ea terra eiusmodi fontes, ut, qui ibi procrearentur, voces ad cantandum egregias haberent, ideoque semper transmarinos catlastros emere formosos et puellas maturas eosque coniungere, ut, qui nascerentur ex his, non solum voce egregia sed etiam forma essent non invenusta.
3.26. 26. This great variety in different things is a distribution due to nature, for even the human body, which consists in part of the earthy, contains many kinds of juices, such as blood, milk, sweat, urine, and tears. If all this variation of flavours is found in a small portion of the earthy, we should not be surprised to find in the great earth itself countless varieties of juices, through the veins of which the water runs, and becomes saturated with them before reaching the outlets of springs. In this way, different varieties of springs of peculiar kinds are produced, on account of diversity of situation, characteristics of country, and dissimilar properties of soils.
3.26. Cum haec tanta varietas sit disparibus rebus natura distributa … quod humanum corpus est ex aliqua parte terrenum, in eo autem multa genera sunt umorum, uti sanguinis, lactis, sudoris, urinae, lacrimarum. ergo si in parva particula terreni tanta discrepantia invenitur saporum, non est mirandum, si tanta in magnitudine terrae innumerabiles sucorum reperientur varietates, per quarum venas aquae vis percurrens tincta pervenit ad fontium egressus, et ita ex eo dispares variique perficiuntur in propriis generibus fontes propter locorum discrepantiam et regionum qualitates terrarumque dissimiles proprietates.
3.27. 27. Some of these things I have seen for myself, others I have found written in Greek books, the authorities for these writings being Theophrastus, Timaeus, Posidonius, Hegesias, Herodotus, Aristides, and Metrodorus. These men with much attention and endless pains showed by their writings that the peculiarities of sites, the properties of waters, and the characteristics of countries are conditioned by the inclination of the heaven. Following their investigations, I have set down in this book what I thought sufficient about different kinds of water, to make it easier, by means of these directions, for people to pick out springs from which they can conduct the water in aqueducts for the use of cities and towns.
3.27. Ex his autem rebus sunt nonnulla, quae ego per me perspexi, cetera in libris graecis scripta inveni, quorum scriptorum hi sunt auctores: Theophrastos, Timaeus, Posidonios, Hegesias, Herodotus, Aristides, Metrodorus, qui magna vigilantia et infinito studio locorum proprietates, regionum qualitates, aquarum virtutes ab inclinatione caeli ita esse distributas scriptis dedicaverunt. quorum secutus ingressus in hoc libro perscripsi quae satis esse putavi de aquae varietatibus, quo facilius ex his praescriptionibus eligant homines aquae fontes, quibus ad usum salientes possint ad civitates municipiaque perducere.
3.28. 28. For it is obvious that nothing in the world is so necessary for use as water, seeing that any living creature can, if deprived of grain or fruit or meat or fish, or any one of them, support life by using other foodstuffs; but without water no animal nor any proper food can be produced, kept in good condition, or prepared. Consequently we must take great care and pains in searching for springs and selecting them, keeping in view the health of mankind.
3.28. Nulla enim ex omnibus rebus tantas habere videtur ad usum necessitates, quantas aqua, ideo quod omnium animalium natura, si frumenti fructu privata fuerit, arbustivo aut carne aut piscatu aut etiam qualibet ex his reliquis rebus escarum utendo poterit tueri vitam, sine aqua vero nec corpus animalium nec ulla cibi virtus potest nasci nec tueri nec parari. quare magna diligentia industriaque quaerendi sunt et eligendi fontes ad humanae vitae salubritatem.
4.1. 1. SPRING should be tested and proved in advance in the following ways. If they run free and open, inspect and observe the physique of the people who dwell in the vicinity before beginning to conduct the water, and if their frames are strong, their complexions fresh, legs sound, and eyes clear, the springs deserve complete approval. If it is a spring just dug out, its water is excellent if it can be sprinkled into a Corinthian vase or into any other sort made of good bronze without leaving a spot on it. Again, if such water is boiled in a bronze cauldron, afterwards left for a time, and then poured off without sand or mud being found at the bottom of the cauldron, that water also will have proved its excellence.
4.1. Expertiones autem et probationes eorum sic sunt providendae. si erunt profluentes et aperti, antequam duci incipiantur, aspiciantur animoque advertantur, qua membratura sint qui circa eos fontes habitant homines; et si erunt corporibus valentibus, coloribus nitidis, cruribus non vitiosis, non lippis oculis, erunt probatissimi. item si fons novus fossus fuerit, et in vas corinthium sive alterius generis, quod erit ex aere bono, ea aqua sparsa maculam non fecerit, optima est. itemque in aeneo si ea aqua defervefacta et postea requieta et defusa fuerit, neque in eius aenei fundo harena aut limus invenietur, ea aqua erit item probata.
4.2. 2. And if green vegetables cook quickly when put into a vessel of such water and set over a fire, it will be a proof that the water is good and wholesome. Likewise if the water in the spring is itself limpid and clear, if there is no growth of moss or reeds where it spreads and flows, and if its bed is not polluted by filth of any sort but has a clean appearance, these signs indicate that the water is light and wholesome in the highest degree.
4.2. Item si legumina in vas cum ea aqua coniecta ad ignem posita celeriter percocta fuerint, indicabunt aquam esse bonam et salubrem. non etiam minus ipsa aqua, quae erit in fonte, si fuerit limpida et perlucida, quoque pervenerit aut profluxerit, muscus non nascetur neque iuncus, neque inquinatus ab aliquo inquinamento is locus fuerit, sed puram habuerit speciem, in⟨dica⟩bitur his signis esse tenuis et summa salubritate.
5.1. 1. I SHALL now treat of the ways in which water should be conducted to dwellings and cities. First comes the method of taking the level. Levelling is done either with dioptrae, or with water levels, or with the chorobates, but it is done with greater accuracy by means of the chorobates, because dioptrae and levels are deceptive. The chorobates is a straightedge about twenty feet long. At the extremities it has legs, made exactly alike and jointed on perpendicularly to the extremities of the straightedge, and also crosspieces, fastened by tenons, connecting the straightedge and the legs. These crosspieces have vertical lines drawn upon them, and there are plumblines hanging from the straightedge over each of the lines. When the straightedge is in position, and the plumblines strike both the lines alike and at the same time, they show that the instrument stands level.
5.1. Nunc de perductionibus ad habitationes moeniaque, ut fieri oporteat, explicabo. cuius ratio est prima perlibratio. libratur autem dioptris aut libris aquariis aut chorobate, sed diligentius efficitur per chorobaten, quod dioptrae libraeque fallunt. chorobates autem est regula longa circiter pedum viginti. ea habet ancones in capitibus extremis aequali modo perfectos inque regulae capitibus ad normam coagmentatos, et inter regulam et ancones a cardinibus compacta transversaria, quae habent lineas ad perpendiculum recte descriptas pendentiaque ex regula perpendicula in singulis partibus singula, quae, cum regula est conlocata aeque, tangendo aeque ac pariter lineas descriptionis indicant libratam conlocationem.
5.2. 2. But if the wind interposes, and constant motion prevents any definite indication by the lines, then have a groove on the upper side, five feet long, one digit wide, and a digit and a half deep, and pour water into it. If the water comes up uniformly to the rims of the groove, it will be known that the instrument is level. When the level is thus found by means of the chorobates, the amount of fall will also be known.
5.2. Sin autem ventus interpellaverit et motionibus lineae non potuerint certam significationem facere, tunc habeat in superiore parte canalem longum pedes V, latum digitum, altum sesquidigitum, eoque aqua infundatur, et si aequaliter aqua canalis summa labra tanget, scietur esse libratum. item eo chorobate cum perlibratum ita fuerit, scietur, quantum habuerit fastigii.
5.3. 3. Perhaps some reader of the works of Archimedes will say that there can be no true levelling by means of water, because he holds that water has not a level surface, but is of a spherical form, having its centre at the centre of the earth. Still, whether water is plane or spherical, it necessarily follows that when the straightedge is level, it will support the water evenly at its extremities on the right and left, but that if it slopes down at one end, the water at the higher end will not reach the rim of the groove in the straightedge. For though the water, wherever poured in, must have a swelling and curvature in the centre, yet the extremities on the right and left must be on a level with each other. A picture of the chorobates will be found drawn at the end of the book. If there is to be a considerable fall, the conducting of the water will be comparatively easy. But if the course is broken by depressions, we must have recourse to substructures.
5.3. Fortasse, qui Archimedis libros legit, dicet non posse fieri veram ex aqua librationem, quod ei placet aquam non esse libratam, sed sphaeroides habere schema et ibi habere centrum, quo loci habet orbis terrarum. hoc autem, sive plana est aqua seu sphaeroides, necesse est, ⟨ad⟩ extrema capita dextra ac sinistra, cum librata regula erit, pariter sustinere regulam aquam; sin autem proclinatum habuerit regulae canalem, erit ex una parte, quae erit altior, non in summis labris aqua; necesse est enim, quocumque aqua sit infusa, in medio inflationem curvaturamque habere, sed capita dextra ac sinistra inter se librata esse. exemplar autem chorobati erit in extremo volumine descriptum. et si erit fastigium magnum, facilior erit decursus aquae; sin autem intervalla erunt lacunosa, substructionibus erit succurrendum.
6.1. 1. THERE are three methods of conducting water, in channels through masonry conduits, or in lead pipes, or in pipes of baked clay. If in conduits, let the masonry be as solid as possible, and let the bed of the channel have a gradient of not less than a quarter of an inch for every hundred feet, and let the masonry structure be arched over, so that the sun may not strike the water at all. When it has reached the city, build a reservoir with a distribution tank in three compartments connected with the reservoir to receive the water, and let the reservoir have three pipes, one for each of the connecting tanks, so that when the water runs over from the tanks at the ends, it may run into the one between them.
6.1. Ductus autem aquae fiunt generibus tribus: rivis per canales structiles, aut fistulis plumbeis, seu tubulis fictilibus. quorum hae sunt rationes. si canalibus, ut structura fiat quam solidissima, solumque rivi libramenta habeat fastigata ne minus in centenos pedes sicilico. eaeque structurae confornicentur, ut minime sol aquam tangat. cumque venerit ad moenia, efficiatur castellum et castello coniunctum ad recipiendam aquam triplex inmissarium, conlocenturque in castello tres fistulae aequaliter divisae intra receptacula coniuncta, uti, cum abundaverit ab extremis, in medium receptaculum redundet.
6.2. 2. From this central tank, pipes will be laid to all the basins and fountains; from the second tank, to baths, so that they may yield an annual income to the state; and from the third, to private houses, so that water for public use will not run short; for people will be unable to divert it if they have only their own supplies from headquarters. This is the reason why I have made these divisions, and also in order that individuals who take water into their houses may by their taxes help to maintain the conducting of the water by the contractors.
6.2. Ita in medio ponentur fistulae in omnes lacus et salientes, ex altero in balneas †vectigal quotannis populo praestent, ex quibus tertio in domus privatas, ne desit in publico, non enim poterint avertere, cum habuerint a capitibus proprias ductiones. haec autem quare divisa constituerim, hae sunt causae, uti qui privatim ducent in domos vectigalibus tueantur per publicanos aquarum ductus.
6.3. 3. If, however, there are hills between the city and the source of supply, subterranean channels must be dug, and brought to a level at the gradient mentioned above. If the bed is of tufa or other stone, let the channel be cut in it; but if it is of earth or sand, there must be vaulted masonry walls for the channel, and the water should thus be conducted, with shafts built at every two hundred and forty feet.
6.3. Sin autem medii montes erunt inter moenia et caput fontis, sic erit faciendum, uti specus fodiantur sub terra librenturque ad fastigium, quod supra scriptum est. et si tofus erit aut saxum, in suo sibi canalis excidatur, sin autem terrenum aut harenosum erit, solum et parietes cum camara in specu struantur et ita perducatur. puteique ita sint facti, uti inter duos sit actus.
6.4. 4. But if the water is to be conducted in lead pipes, first build a reservoir at the source; then, let the pipes have an interior area corresponding to the amount of water, and lay these pipes from this reservoir to the reservoir which is inside the city walls. The pipes should be cast in lengths of at least ten feet. If they are hundreds, they should weigh 1200 pounds each length; if eighties, 960 pounds; if fifties, 600 pounds; forties, 480 pounds; thirties, 360 pounds; twenties, 240 pounds; fifteens, 180 pounds; tens, 120 pounds; eights, 100 pounds; fives, 60 pounds. The pipes get the names of their sizes from the width of the plates, taken in digits, before they are rolled into tubes. Thus, when a pipe is made from a plate fifty digits in width, it will be called a “fifty,” and so on with the rest.
6.4. Sin autem fistulis plumbeis ducetur, primum castellum ad caput struatur, deinde ad copiam aquae lumen fistularum constituatur, eaeque fistulae ⟨e⟩ castello conlocentur ad castellum, quod erit in moenibus. fistulae ne minus longae pedum denûm fundantur. quae si centenariae erunt, pondus habeant in singulas pondo MCC; si octogenariae, pondo DCCCCLX; si quinquagenariae, pondo DC; quadragenariae pondo CCCCLXXX; tricenariae pondo CLX; vicenariae pondo CCXL; quinûm denûm pondo CLXXX; denûm pondo CXX; octonûm pondo C; quinariae pondo LX. e latitudine autem lamnarum, quot digitos habuerint, antequam in rotundationem flectantur, magnitudinum ita nomina concipiunt fistulae. namque quae lamna fuerit digitorum quinquaginta, cum fistula perficietur ex ea lamna, vocabitur quinquagenaria similiterque reliquae.
6.5. 5. The conducting of the water through lead pipes is to be managed as follows. If there is a regular fall from the source to the city, without any intervening hills that are high enough to interrupt it, but with depressions in it, then we must build substructures to bring it up to the level as in the case of channels and conduits. If the distance round such depressions is not great, the water may be carried round circuitously; but if the valleys are extensive, the course will be directed down their slope. On reaching the bottom, a low substructure is built so that the level there may continue as long as possible. This will form the “venter,” termed Κολία by the Greeks. Then, on reaching the hill on the opposite side, the length of the venter makes the water slow in swelling up to rise to the top of the hill.
6.5. Ea autem ductio, quae per fistulas plumbeas est futura, hanc habebit expeditionem. quodsi caput habeat libramenta ad moenia montesque medii non fuerint altiores, ut possint interpellare, sed intervalla, necesse est substruere ad libramenta, quemadmodum in rivis et canalibus. sin autem non longa erit circumitio, circumductionibus, sin autem valles erunt perpetuae, in declinato loco cursus dirigentur. cum venerint ad imum, non alte substruitur, ut sit libramentum quam longissimum; hoc autem erit venter, quod Graeci appellant Κοιλίαν. deinde cum venerit adversus clivum, ex longo spatio ventris leniter tumescit, ⟨ut⟩ exprimatur in altitudinem summi clivi.
6.6. 6. But if there is no such venter made in the valleys, nor any substructure built on a level, but merely an elbow, the water will break out, and burst the joints of the pipes. And in the venter, water cushions must be constructed to relieve the pressure of the air. Thus, those who have to conduct water through lead pipes will do it most successfully on these principles, because its descents, circuits, venters, and risings can be managed in this way, when the level of the fall from the sources to the city is once obtained.
6.6. Quodsi non venter in vallibus factus fuerit nec substructum ad libram factum, sed geniculus erit, erumpet et dissolvet fistularum commissuras. etiam in ventre colliquiaria sunt facienda, per quae vis spiritus relaxetur. ita per fistulas plumbeas aquam qui ducent, his rationibus bellissime poterunt efficere, quod et decursus et circumductiones et ventres et expressus hac ratione possunt fieri, cum habebunt a capitibus ad moenia fastigii libramenta.
6.7. 7. It is also not ineffectual to build reservoirs at intervals of 24,000 feet, so that if a break occurs anywhere, it will not completely ruin the whole work, and the place where it has occurred can easily be found; but such reservoirs should not be built at a descent, nor in the plane of a venter, nor at risings, nor anywhere in valleys, but only where there is an unbroken level.
6.7. Item inter actus ducentos non est inutile castella conlocari, ut, si quando vitium aliqui locus fecerit, non totum omneque opus contundatur et, in quibus locis sit factum, facilius inveniatur; sed ea castella neque in decursu neque in ventris planitia neque in expressionibus neque omnino in vallibus, sed in perpetua ⟨fiant⟩aequalitate.
6.8. 8. But if we wish to spend less money, we must proceed as follows. Clay pipes with a skin at least two digits thick should be made, but these pipes should be tongued at one end so that they can fit into and join one another. Their joints must be coated with quicklime mixed with oil, and at the angles of the level of the venter a piece of red tufa stone, with a hole bored through it, must be placed right at the elbow, so that the last length of pipe used in the descent is jointed into the stone, and also the first length of the level of the venter; similarly at the hill on the opposite side the last length of the level of the venter should stick into the hole in the red tufa, and the first of the rise should be similarly jointed into it.
6.8. Sin autem minore sumptu voluerimus, sic est faciendum. tubuli crasso corio ne minus duorum digitorum fiant, sed ita hi tubuli ex una parte sint lingulati, ut alius in alium inire convenireque possint. coagmenta autem eorum calce viva ex oleo subacta sunt inlinienda, et in declinationibus libramenti ventris lapis est ex saxo rubro in ipso geniculo conlocandus isque perterebratus, uti ex decursu tubulus novissimus in lapide coagmentetur et primus [ex] librati ventris; ad eundem modum adversum clivum et novissimus librati ventris in cavo saxi rubri haereat et primus expressionis ad eundem modum coagmentetur.
6.9. 9. The level of the pipes being thus adjusted, they will not be sprung out of place by the force generated at the descent and at the rising. For a strong current of air is generated in an aqueduct which bursts its way even through stones unless the water is let in slowly and sparingly from the source at first, and checked at the elbows or turns by bands, or by the weight of sand ballast. All the other arrangements should be made as in the case of lead pipes. And ashes are to be put in beforehand when the water is let in from the source for the first time, so that if any of the joints have not been sufficiently coated, they may be coated with ashes.
6.9. Ita librata planitia tubulorum ad decursus et expressiones non extolletur. namque vehemens spiritus in aquae ductione solet nasci, ita ut etiam saxa perrumpat, nisi primum leniter et parce a capite aqua inmittatur et in geniculis aut versuris alligationibus aut pondere saburra contineatur. reliqua omnia uti fistulis plumbeis ita sunt conlocanda. item cum primo aqua a capite inmittitur, ante favilla inmittetur, uti coagmenta, si qua sunt non satis oblita, favilla oblinantur.
6.10. 10. Clay pipes for conducting water have the following advantages. In the first place, in construction:—if anything happens to them, anybody can repair the damage. Secondly, water from clay pipes is much more wholesome than that which is conducted through lead pipes, because lead is found to be harmful for the reason that white lead is derived from it, and this is said to be hurtful to the human system. Hence, if what is produced from it is harmful, no doubt the thing itself is not wholesome.
6.10. habent autem tubulorum ductiones ea commoda. primum in opere quod si quod vitium factum fuerit, quilibet id potest reficere. etiamque multo salubrior est ex tubulis aqua quam per fistulas, quod plumbum videtur esse ideo vitiosum, quod ex eo cerussa nascitur; haec autem dicitur esse nocens corporibus humanis. ita quod ex eo procreatur, ⟨si⟩ id est vitiosum, non est dubium, quin ipsum quoque non sit salubre.
6.11. 11. This we can exemplify from plumbers, since in them the natural colour of the body is replaced by a deep pallor. For when lead is smelted in casting, the fumes from it settle upon their members, and day after day burn out and take away all the virtues of the blood from their limbs. Hence, water ought by no means to be conducted in lead pipes, if we want to have it wholesome. That the taste is better when it comes from clay pipes may be proved by everyday life, for though our tables are loaded with silver vessels, yet everybody uses earthenware for the sake of purity of taste.
6.11. Exemplar autem ab artificibus plumbariis possumus accipere, quod palloribus occupatos habent corporis colores. namque cum fundendo plumbum flatur, vapor ex eo insidens corporis artus et in diem exurens eripit ex membris eorum sanguinis virtutes. itaque minime fistulis plumbeis aqua duci videtur, si volumus eam habere salubrem. saporemque meliorem ex tubulis esse cotidianus potest indicare victus, quod omnes, et structas cum habeant vasorum argenteorum mensas, tamen propter saporis integritatem fictilibus utuntur.
6.12. 12. But if there are no springs from which we can construct aqueducts, it is necessary to dig wells. Now in the digging of wells we must not disdain reflection, but must devote much acuteness and skill to the consideration of the natural principles of things, because the earth contains many various substances in itself; for like everything else, it is composed of the four elements. In the first place, it is itself earthy, and of moisture it contains springs of water, also heat, which produces sulphur, alum, and asphalt; and finally, it contains great currents of air, which, coming up in a pregnant state through the porous fissures to the places where wells are being dug, and finding men engaged in digging there, stop up the breath of life in their nostrils by the natural strength of the exhalation. So those who do not quickly escape from the spot, are killed there.
6.12. Sin autem fontes ⟨non sunt⟩, unde ductiones aquarum faciamus, necesse est puteos fodere. in puteorum autem fossionibus non est contemnenda ratio, sed acuminibus sollertiaque magna naturales rerum rationes considerandae, quod habet multa variaque terra in se genera. est enim uti reliquae res ex quattuor principiis composita. et primum est ipsa terrena habetque ex umore aquae fontes, item calores, unde etiam sulphur, alumen, bitumen nascitur, aerisque spiritus inmanes, qui, cum graves per intervenia fistulosa terrae perveniunt ad fossionem puteorum et ibi homines offendunt fodientes, vi naturali vaporis obturant eorum naribus spiritus animales; ita, qui non celerius inde effugiunt, ibi interimuntur.
6.13. 13. To guard against this, we must proceed as follows. Let down a lighted lamp, and if it keeps on burning, a man may make the descent without danger. But if the light is put out by the strength of the exhalation, then dig air shafts beside the well on the right and left. Thus the vapours will be carried off by the air shafts as if through nostrils. When these are finished and we come to the water, then a wall should be built round the well without stopping up the vein.
6.13. Hoc autem quibus rationibus caveatur, sic erit faciendum. lucerna accensa demittatur; quae si permanserit ardens, sine periculo descendetur. sin autem eripietur lumen a vi vaporis, tunc secundum puteum dextra ac sinistra defodiantur aestuaria; ita quemadmodum per nares spiritus ex aestu⟨ariis⟩ dissipabuntur. cum haec sic explicata fuerint et ad aquam erit perventum, tunc saepiatur as⟨sa⟩ structura, ne obturentur venae.
6.14. 14. But if the ground is hard, or if the veins lie too deep, the water supply must be obtained from roofs or higher ground, and collected in cisterns of “signinum work.” Signinum work is made as follows. In the first place, procure the cleanest and sharpest sand, break up lava into bits of not more than a pound in weight, and mix the sand in a mortar trough with the strongest lime in the proportion of five parts of sand to two of lime. The trench for the signinum work, down to the level of the proposed depth of the cistern, should be beaten with wooden beetles covered with iron.
6.14. Sin autem loca dura erunt aut nimium venae penitus fuerint, tunc signinis operibus ex tectis aut superioribus locis excipiendae sunt copiae. in signinis autem operibus haec sunt facienda. uti harena primum purissima asperrimaque paretur, caementum de silice frangatur ne gravius quam librarium, calx quam vehementissima mortario mixta, ita ut quinque partes harenae ad duas respondeant. eorum fossa ad libramentum altitudinis, quod est futurum, calcetur vectibus ligneis ferratis.
6.15. 15. Then after having beaten the walls, let all the earth between them be cleared out to a level with the very bottom of the walls. Having evened this off, let the ground be beaten to the proper density. If such constructions are in two compartments or in three so as to insure clearing by changing from one to another, they will make the water much more wholesome and sweeter to use. For it will become more limpid, and keep its taste without any smell, if the mud has somewhere to settle; otherwise it will be necessary to clear it by adding salt. In this book I have put what I could about the merits and varieties of water, its usefulness, and the ways in which it should be conducted and tested; in the next I shall write about the subject of dialling and the principles of timepieces.
6.15. Parietibus calcatis, in medio quod erit terrenum, exinaniatur ad libramentum infimum parietum. hoc exaequato solum calcetur ad crassitudinem, quae constituta fuerit. ea autem si duplicia aut triplicia facta fuerint, uti percolationibus transmutari possint, multo salubriorem et suaviorem aquae usum efficient; limus enim cum habuerit, quo subsidat, limpidior fiet et sine odoribus conservabit saporem. si non, salem addi necesse erit et extenuari. Quae potui de aquae virtute et varietate, quasque habeat utilitates quibusque rationibus ducatur et probetur, in hoc volumine posui; de gnomonicis vero rebus et horologiorum rationibus insequenti perscribam.