pr.1. 1. DINOCRATES, an architect who was full of confidence in his own ideas and skill, set out from Macedonia, in the reign of Alexander, to go to the army, being eager to win the approbation of the king. He took with him from his country letters from relatives and friends to the principal military men and officers of the court, in order to gain access to them more readily. Being politely received by them, he asked to be presented to Alexander as soon as possible. They promised, but were rather slow, waiting for a suitable opportunity. So Dinocrates, thinking that they were playing with him, had recourse to his own efforts. He was of very lofty stature and pleasing countenance, finely formed, and extremely dignified. Trusting, therefore, to these natural gifts, he undressed himself in his inn, anointed his body with oil, set a chaplet of poplar leaves on his head, draped his left shoulder with a lion's skin, and holding a club in his right hand stalked forth to a place in front of the tribunal where the king was administering justice.
pr.1. Dinocrates architectus cogitationibus et sollertia fretus, cum Alexander rerum potiretur, profectus est e Macedonia ad exercitum regiae cupidus commendationis. is e patria a propinquis et amicis tulit ad primos ordines et purpuratos litteras, ut aditus haberet faciliores, ab eisque exceptus humane petît, uti quamprimum ad Alexandrum perduceretur. cum polliciti essent, tardiores fuerunt idoneum tempus expectantes. itaque Dinocrates ab his se existimans ludi ab se petît praesidium. fuerat enim amplissima statura, facie grata, forma dignitateque summa. his igitur naturae muneribus confisus vestimenta posuit in hospitio et oleo corpus perunxit caputque coronavit populea fronde, laevum umerum pelle leonina texit, dextraque clavam tenens incessit contra tribunal regis ius dicentis.
pr.2. 2. His strange appearance made the people turn round, and this led Alexander to look at him. In astonishment he gave orders to make way for him to draw near, and asked who he was. “Dinocrates,” quoth he, “a Macedonian architect, who brings thee ideas and designs worthy of thy renown. I have made a design for the shaping of Mount Athos into the statue of a man, in whose left hand I have represented a very spacious fortified city, and in his right a bowl to receive the water of all the streams which are in that mountain, so that it may pour from the bowl into the sea.”
pr.2. Novitas populum cum avertisset, conspexit eum Alexander. admirans ei iussit locum dari, ut accederet, interrogavitque, quis esset. at ille: 'Dinocrates', inquit, 'architectus Macedo, qui ad te cogitationes et formas adfero dignas tuae claritati. namque Athon montem formavi in statuae virilis figuram, cuius manu laeva designavi civitatis amplissimae moenia, dextera pateram, quae exciperet omnium fluminum, quae sunt in eo monte, aquam, ut inde in mare profunderetur'.
pr.3. 3. Alexander, delighted with the idea of his design, immediately inquired whether there were any fields in the neighbourhood that could maintain the city in corn. On finding that this was impossible without transport from beyond the sea, “Dinocrates,” quoth he, “I appreciate your design as excellent in composition, and I am delighted with it, but I apprehend that anybody who should found a city in that spot would be censured for bad judgement. For as a newborn babe cannot be nourished without the nurse's milk, nor conducted to the approaches that lead to growth in life, so a city cannot thrive without fields and the fruits thereof pouring into its walls, nor have a large population without plenty of food, nor maintain its population without a supply of it. Therefore, while thinking that your design is commendable, I consider the site as not commendable; but I would have you stay with me, because I mean to make use of your services.”
pr.3. Delectatus Alexander ratione formae statim quaesiit, si essent agri circa, qui possent frumentaria ratione eam civitatem tueri. cum invenisset non posse nisi transmarinis subvectionibus: 'Dinocrates', inquit, 'attendo egregiam formae compositionem et ea delector, sed animadverto, si qui deduxerit eo loci coloniam, fore ut iudicium eius vituperetur. ut enim natus infans sine nutricis lacte non potest ali neque ad vitae crescentis gradus perduci, sic civitas sine agris et eorum fructibus in moenibus affluentibus non potest crescere nec sine abundantia cibi frequentiam habere populumque sine copia tueri. itaque quemadmodum formationem puto probandam, sic iudico locum inprobandum; teque volo esse mecum, quod tua opera sum usurus'.
pr.4. 4. From that time, Dinocrates did not leave the king, but followed him into Egypt. There Alexander, observing a harbour rendered safe by nature, an excellent centre for trade, cornfields throughout all Egypt, and the great usefulness of the mighty river Nile, ordered him to build the city of Alexandria, named after the king. This was how Dinocrates, recommended only by his good looks and dignified carriage, came to be so famous. But as for me, Emperor, nature has not given me stature, age has marred my face, and my strength is impaired by ill health. Therefore, since these advantages fail me, I shall win your approval, as I hope, by the help of my knowledge and my writings.
pr.4. Ex eo Dinocrates ab rege non discessit et in Aegyptum est eum persecutus. ibi Alexander cum animadvertisset portum naturaliter tutum, emporium egregium, campos circa totam Aegyptum frumentarios, inmanis fluminis Nili magnas utilitates, iussit eum suo nomine civitatem Alexandriam constituere. ita Dinocrates a facie dignitateque corporis commendatus ad eam nobilitatem pervenit. mihi autem, imperator, staturam non tribuit natura, faciem deformavit aetas, valetudo detraxit vires. itaque quoniam ab his praesidiis sum desertus, per auxilia scientiae scriptaque, ut spero, perveniam ad commendationem.
pr.5. 5. In my first book, I have said what I had to say about the functions of architecture and the scope of the art, as well as about fortified towns and the apportionment of building sites within the fortifications. Although it would next be in order to explain the proper proportions and symmetry of temples and public buildings, as well as of private houses, I thought best to postpone this until after I had treated the practical merits of the materials out of which, when they are brought together, buildings are constructed with due regard to the proper kind of material for each part, and until I had shown of what natural elements those materials are composed. But before beginning to explain their natural properties, I will prefix the motives which originally gave rise to buildings and the development of inventions in this field, following in the steps of early nature and of those writers who have devoted treatises to the origins of civilization and the investigation of inventions. My exposition will, therefore, follow the instruction which I have received from them.
pr.5. Cum autem ⟨quae⟩ primo volumine de officio architecturae terminationibusque artis perscripsi, item de moenibus et intra moenia arearum divisionibus, insequatur ordo de aedibus sacris et publicis aedificiis itemque privatis, quibus proportionibus et symmetriis debeant esse, uti explicentur, non putavi ante ponendum, nisi prius de materiae copiis, e quibus conlatis aedificia structuris et materiationibus perficiuntur, quas habeant in usu virtutes, exposuissem, quibusque rerum natura e principiis essent temperatae, dixissem. sed antequam naturales res incipiam explicare, de aedificiorum rationibus, unde initia ceperint et uti creverint eorum inventiones, ante ponam, et insequar ingressus eorum, qui antiquitates rerum naturae et initia humanitatis et inventiones perquisitas scriptorum praeceptis dedicaverunt. itaque quemadmodum ab his sum institutus, exponam.
1.1. 1. THE men of old were born like the wild beasts, in woods, caves, and groves, and lived on savage fare. As time went on, the thickly crowded trees in a certain place, tossed by storms and winds, and rubbing their branches against one another, caught fire, and so the inhabitants of the place were put to flight, being terrified by the furious flame. After it subsided, they drew near, and observing that they were very comfortable standing before the warm fire, they put on logs and, while thus keeping it alive, brought up other people to it, showing them by signs how much comfort they got from it. In that gathering of men, at a time when utterance of sound was purely individual, from daily habits they fixed upon articulate words just as these had happened to come; then, from indicating by name things in common use, the result was that in this chance way they began to talk, and thus originated conversation with one another.
1.1. Homines vetere more ut ferae in silvis et speluncis et nemoribus nascebantur ciboque agresti vescendo vitam exigebant. interea quodam in loco ab tempestatibus et ventis densae crebritatibus arbores agitatae et inter se terentes ramos ignem excitaverunt, et eius flamma vehementi perterriti, qui circa eum locum fuerunt, sunt fugati. postea re quieta propius accedentes cum animadvertissent commoditatem esse magnam corporibus ignis teporem, ligna adicientes et îs conservantes alios adducebant et nutu monstrantes ostendebant, quas haberent ex eo utilitates. in eo hominum congressu cum profundebantur aliter ⟨atque aliter⟩ e spiritu voces, cotidiana consuetudine vocabula, ut obtigerant, constituerunt, deinde significando res saepius in usu ex eventu fari fortuito coeperunt et ita sermones inter se procreaverunt.
1.2. 2. Therefore it was the discovery of fire that originally gave rise to the coming together of men, to the deliberative assembly, and to social intercourse. And so, as they kept coming together in greater numbers into one place, finding themselves naturally gifted beyond the other animals in not being obliged to walk with faces to the ground, but upright and gazing upon the splendour of the starry firmament, and also in being able to do with ease whatever they chose with their hands and fingers, they began in that first assembly to construct shelters. Some made them of green boughs, others dug caves on mountain sides, and some, in imitation of the nests of swallows and the way they built, made places of refuge out of mud and twigs. Next, by observing the shelters of others and adding new details to their own inceptions, they constructed better and better kinds of huts as time went on.
1.2. Ergo cum propter ignis inventionem conventus initio apud homines et concilium et convictus esset natus, et in unum locum plures convenirent habentes ab natura praemium praeter reliqua animalia, ut non proni sed erecti ambularent mundique et astrorum magnificentiam aspicerent, item manibus et articulis quam vellent rem faciliter tractarent, coeperunt in eo coetu alii de fronde facere tecta, alii speluncas fodere sub montibus, nonnulli hirundinum nidos et aedificationes †earum imitantes de luto et virgulis facere loca, quae subirent. tunc observantes aliena tecta et adicientes suis cogitationibus res novas, efficiebant in dies meliora genera casarum.
1.3. 3. And since they were of an imitative and teachable nature, they would daily point out to each other the results of their building, boasting of the novelties in it; and thus, with their natural gifts sharpened by emulation, their standards improved daily. At first they set up forked stakes connected by twigs and covered these walls with mud. Others made walls of lumps of dried mud, covering them with reeds and leaves to keep out the rain and the heat. Finding that such roofs could not stand the rain during the storms of winter, they built them with peaks daubed with mud, the roofs sloping and projecting so as to carry off the rain water.
1.3. Cum essent autem homines imitabili docilique natura, cotidie inventionibus gloriantes alius alii ostendebant aedificiorum effectus, et ita exercentes ingenia certationibus in dies melioribus iudiciis efficiebantur. primumque furcis erectis et virgulis interpositis luto parietes texerunt. alii luteas glaebas arefacientes struebant parietes, materia eos iugumentantes, vitandoque imbres et aestus tegebant harundinibus et fronde. posteaquam per hibernas tempestates tecta non potuerunt imbres sustinere, fastigia facientes, luto inducto proclinatis tectis, stillicidia deducebant.
1.4. 4. That houses originated as I have written above, we can see for ourselves from the buildings that are to this day constructed of like materials by foreign tribes: for instance, in Gaul, Spain, Portugal, and Aquitaine, roofed with oak shingles or thatched. Among the Colchians in Pontus, where there are forests in plenty, they lay down entire trees flat on the ground to the right and the left, leaving between them a space to suit the length of the trees, and then place above these another pair of trees, resting on the ends of the former and at right angles with them. These four trees enclose the space for the dwelling. Then upon these they place sticks of timber, one after the other on the four sides, crossing each other at the angles, and so, proceeding with their walls of trees laid perpendicularly above the lowest, they build up high towers. The interstices, which are left on account of the thickness of the building material, are stopped up with chips and mud. As for the roofs, by cutting away the ends of the crossbeams and making them converge gradually as they lay them across, they bring them up to the top from the four sides in the shape of a pyramid. They cover it with leaves and mud, and thus construct the roofs of their towers in a rude form of the “tortoise” style.
1.4. Haec autem ex îs, quae supra scriptae sunt, originibus instituta esse possumus sic animadvertere, quod ad hunc diem nationibus exteris ex his rebus aedificia constituuntur, uti Gallia, Hispania, Lusitania, Aquitania scandulis robusteis aut stramentis. apud nationem Colchorum in Ponto propter silvarum abundantiam arboribus perpetuis planis dextra ac sinistra in terra positis, spatio inter eas relicto quanto arborum longitudines patiuntur, conlocantur in extremis partibus earum supra alterae transversae, quae circumcludunt medium spatium habitationis. tum insuper alternis trabibus ex quattuor partibus angulos iugumentantes et ita parietes arboribus statuentes ad perpendiculum imarum educunt ad altitudinem turres, intervallaque, quae relinquuntur propter crassitudinem materiae, schidiis et luto obstruunt. item tecta, recidentes ad extremos ⟨angulos⟩ transtra, traiciunt gradatim contrahentes, et ita ex quattuor partibus ad altitudinem educunt medio metas, quas fronde et luto tegentes efficiunt barbarico more testudinata turrium tecta.
1.5. 5. On the other hand, the Phrygians, who live in an open country, have no forests and consequently lack timber. They therefore select a natural hillock, run a trench through the middle of it, dig passages, and extend the interior space as widely as the site admits. Over it they build a pyramidal roof of logs fastened together, and this they cover with reeds and brushwood, heaping up very high mounds of earth above their dwellings. Thus their fashion in houses makes their winters very warm and their summers very cool. Some construct hovels with roofs of rushes from the swamps. Among other nations, also, in some places there are huts of the same or a similar method of construction. Likewise at Marseilles we can see roofs without tiles, made of earth mixed with straw. In Athens on the Areopagus there is to this day a relic of antiquity with a mud roof. The hut of Romulus on the Capitol is a significant reminder of the fashions of old times, and likewise the thatched roofs of temples on the Citadel.
1.5. Phryges vero, qui campestribus locis sunt habitantes, propter inopiam silvarum egentes materiae eligunt tumulos naturales eosque medios fossura detegentes et itinera perfodientes dilatant spatia, quantum natura loci patitur. insuper autem stipites inter se religantes metas efficiunt, quas harundinibus et sarmentis tegentes exaggerant supra habitationes e terra maximos grumos. ita hiemes calidissimas, aestates frigidissimas efficiunt tectorum rationes. nonnulli ex ulva palustri componunt tuguria tecta. apud ceteras quoque gentes ex cannula pari similique ratione casarum perficiuntur constitutiones. non minus etiam Massiliae animadvertere possumus sine tegulis subacta cum paleis terra tecta. Athenis Areopagi antiquitatis exemplar ad hoc tempus luto tectum. item in Capitolio commonefacere potest et significare mores vetustatis Romuli casa et in arce sacrorum stramentis tecta.
1.6. 6. From such specimens we can draw our inferences with regard to the devices used in the buildings of antiquity, and conclude that they were similar. Furthermore, as men made progress by becoming daily more expert in building, and as their ingenuity was increased by their dexterity so that from habit they attained to considerable skill, their intelligence was enlarged by their industry until the more proficient adopted the trade of carpenters. From these early beginnings, and from the fact that nature had not only endowed the human race with senses like the rest of the animals, but had also equipped their minds with the powers of thought and understanding, thus putting all other animals under their sway, they next gradually advanced from the construction of buildings to the other arts and sciences, and so passed from a rude and barbarous mode of life to civilization and refinement.
1.6. Ita his signis de antiquis inventionibus aedificiorum, sic ea fuisse ratiocinantes, possumus iudicare. Cum autem cotidie faciendo tritiores manus ad aedificandum perfecissent et sollertia ingenia exercendo per consuetudinem ad artes pervenissent, tum etiam industria in animis eorum adiecta perfecit, ut, qui fuerunt in his studiosiores, fabros esse se profiterentur. cum ergo haec ita fuerint primo constituta et natura non solum sensibus ornavisset gentes quemadmodum reliqua animalia, sed etiam cogitationibus et consiliis armavisset mentes et subiecisset cetera animalia sub potestate, tunc vero ex fabricationibus aedificiorum gradatim progressi ad ceteras artes et disciplinas, e fera agrestique vita ad mansuetam perduxerunt humanitatem.
1.7. 7. Then, taking courage and looking forward from the standpoint of higher ideas born of the multiplication of the arts, they gave up huts and began to build houses with foundations, having brick or stone walls, and roofs of timber and tiles; next, observation and application led them from fluctuating and indefinite conceptions to definite rules of symmetry. Perceiving that nature had been lavish in the bestowal of timber and bountiful in stores of building material, they treated this like careful nurses, and thus developing the refinements of life, embellished them with luxuries. Therefore I shall now treat, to the best of my ability, of the things which are suitable to be used in buildings, showing their qualities and their excellencies.
1.7. Tum autem struentes animose et aevo prospicientes maioribus cogitationibus ex varietate artium natis, non casas sed etiam domos fundatas et latericiis parietibus aut e lapide structas materiaque et tegula tectas perficere coeperunt, deinde observationibus studiorum e vagantibus iudiciis et incertis ad certas symmetriarum perduxerunt rationes. posteaquam animadverterunt profusos esse partus naturae et abundantem materiae copiam ad aedificationes ab ea comparatam, tractando nutrierunt et auctam per artes ornaverunt voluptatibus elegantiam vitae. igitur de his rebus, quae sunt in aedificiis ad usum idoneae, quibusque sunt qualitatibus et quas habeant virtutes, ut potuero, dicam.
1.8. 8. Some persons, however, may find fault with the position of this book, thinking that it should have been placed first. I will therefore explain the matter, lest it be thought that I have made a mistake. Being engaged in writing a complete treatise on architecture, I resolved to set forth in the first book the branches of learning and studies of which it consists, to define its departments, and to show of what it is composed. Hence I have there declared what the qualities of an architect should be. In the first book, therefore, I have spoken of the function of the art, but in this I shall discuss the use of the building materials which nature provides. For this book does not show of what architecture is composed, but treats of the origin of the building art, how it was fostered, and how it made progress, step by step, until it reached its present perfection.
1.8. Sed si qui de ordine huius libri disputare voluerit, quod putaverit eum primum institui oportuisse, ne putet me erravisse, sic reddam rationem. cum corpus architecturae scriberem, primo volumine putavi, quibus eruditionibus et disciplinis esset ornata, ⟨oportere⟩ exponere finireque terminationibus eius species et, e quibus rebus esset nata, dicere. ergo in primo de artis officio itemque, quid oporteat esse in architecto, ibi pronuntiavi. in hoc de naturalibus materiae rebus, quem habeant usum, disputabo. namque hic liber non profitetur, unde architectura nascatur, sed unde origines aedificiorum sunt institutae et quibus rationibus enutritae et progressae sint gradatim ad hanc finitionem.
1.9. 9. This book is, therefore, in its proper order and place. I will now return to my subject, and with regard to the materials suited to the construction of buildings will consider their natural formation and in what proportions their elementary constituents were combined, making it all clear and not obscure to my readers. For there is no kind of material, no body, and no thing that can be produced or conceived of, which is not made up of elementary particles; and nature does not admit of a truthful exploration in accordance with the doctrines of the physicists without an accurate demonstration of the primary causes of things, showing how and why they are as they are.
1.9. Ergo ita suo ordine et loco huius erit voluminis constitutio. Nunc revertar ad propositum et de copiis, quae aptae sunt aedificiorum perfectionibus, quemadmodum videantur esse ab natura rerum procreatae quibusque mixtionibus principiorum congressus temperentur, ne obscura sed perspicua legentibus sint, ratiocinabor. namque nulla materiarum genera neque corpora neque res sine principiorum coetu nasci neque subici intellectui possunt, neque aliter natura rerum praeceptis physicorum veras patitur habere explicationes, nisi causae, quae insunt in his rebus quemadmodum et quid ita sint, subtilibus rationibus habeant demonstrationes.
2.1. 1. FIRST of all Thales thought that water was the primordial substance of all things. Heraclitus of Ephesus, surnamed by the Greeks σκοτεινὸς on account of the obscurity of his writings, thought that it was fire. Democritus and his follower Epicurus thought that it was the atoms, termed by our writers “bodies that cannot be cut up,” or, by some, “indivisibles.” The school of the Pythagoreans added air and the earthy to the water and fire. Hence, although Democritus did not in a strict sense name them, but spoke only of indivisible bodies, yet he seems to have meant these same elements, because when taken by themselves they cannot be harmed, nor are they susceptible of dissolution, nor can they be cut up into parts, but throughout time eternal they forever retain an infinite solidity.
2.1. Thales primum aquam putavit omnium rerum esse principium; Heraclitus Ephesius, qui propter obscuritatem scriptorum a Graecis σκοτεινὸς est appellatus, ignem; Democritus quique est eum secutus Epicurus atomos, quas nostri insecabilia corpora, nonnulli individua vocitaverunt; Pythagoreorum vero disciplina adiecit ad aquam et ignem aera et terrenum. ergo Democritus, etsi non proprie res nominavit sed tantum individua corpora proposuit, ideo ea ipsa dixisse videtur, quod ea, cum sint disiuncta, nec laeduntur nec interitionem recipiunt nec sectionibus dividuntur, sed sempiterno aevo perpetuo infinitam retinent in se soliditatem.
2.2. 2. All things therefore appear to be made up and produced by the coming together of these elements, so that they have been distributed by nature among an infinite number of kinds of things. Hence I believed it right to treat of the diversity and practical peculiarities of these things as well as of the qualities which they exhibit in buildings, so that persons who are intending to build may understand them and so make no mistake, but may gather materials which are suitable to use in their buildings.
2.2. ex his ergo congruentibus cum res omnes coire nascique videantur et hae in infinitis generibus rerum naturae sint disparatae, putavi oportere de varietatibus et discriminibus usus earum quasque haberent in aedificiis qualitates exponere, uti, cum fuerint notae, non habeant qui aedificare cogitant errorem, sed aptas ad usum copias aedificiis comparent.
3.1. 1. BEGINNING with bricks, I shall state of what kind of clay they ought to be made. They should not be made of sandy or pebbly clay, or of fine gravel, because when made of these kinds they are in the first place heavy; and, secondly, when washed by the rain as they stand in walls, they go to pieces and break up, and the straw in them does not hold together on account of the roughness of the material. They should rather be made of white and chalky or of red clay, or even of a coarse grained gravelly clay. These materials are smooth and therefore durable; they are not heavy to work with, and are readily laid.
3.1. Itaque primum de lateribus, qua de terra duci eos oporteat, dicam. non enim de harenoso neque calculoso luto neque sabulone soluto sunt ducendi, quod, ex his generibus cum sint ducti, primum fiunt graves, deinde, cum ab imbribus in parietibus sparguntur, dilabuntur et dissolvuntur paleaeque in his non cohaerescunt propter asperitatem. faciendi autem sunt ex terra albida cretosa sive de rubrica aut etiam masculo sabulone; haec enim genera propter levitatem habent firmitatem et non sunt in opere ponde rosa et faciliter aggerantur.
3.2. 2. Bricks should be made in Spring or Autumn, so that they may dry uniformly. Those made in Summer are defective, because the fierce heat of the sun bakes their surface and makes the brick seem dry while inside it is not dry. And so the shrinking, which follows as they dry, causes cracks in the parts which were dried before, and these cracks make the bricks weak. Bricks will be most serviceable if made two years before using; for they cannot dry thoroughly in less time. When fresh undried bricks are used in a wall, the stucco covering stiffens and hardens into a permanent mass, but the bricks settle and cannot keep the same height as the stucco; the motion caused by their shrinking prevents them from adhering to it, and they are separated from their union with it. Hence the stucco, no longer joined to the core of the wall, cannot stand by itself because it is so thin; it breaks off, and the walls themselves may perhaps be ruined by their settling. This is so true that at Utica in constructing walls they use brick only if it is dry and made five years previously, and approved as such by the authority of a magistrate.
3.2. Ducendi autem sunt per vernum tempus et autumnale, ut uno tenore siccescant. qui enim per solstitium parantur, ideo vitiosi fiunt, quod, summum corium sol acriter cum praecoquit, efficit, ut videatur aridum, interior autem sit non siccus; et cum postea siccescendo se contrahit, perrumpit ea, quae erant arida. ita rimosi facti efficiuntur inbecilli. maxime autem utiliores erunt, si ante biennium fuerint ducti; namque non ante possunt penitus siccescere. itaque cum recentes et non aridi sunt structi, tectorio inducto rigidoque obsolidate permanente, ipsi sidentes non possunt eandem altitudinem, qua est tectorium, tenere contractioneque moti non haerent cum eo, sed ab coniunctione eius disparantur; igitur tectoria ab structura seiuncta propter tenuitatem per se stare non possunt, sed franguntur, ipsique parietes fortuito sidentes vitiantur. ideo etiam Uticenses laterem, si sit aridus et ante quinquennium ductus, cum arbitrio magistratus fuerit ita probatus, tunc utuntur in parietum structuris.
3.3. 3. There are three kinds of bricks. First, the kind called in Greek Lydian, being that which our people use, a foot and a half long and one foot wide. The other two kinds are used by the Greeks in their buildings. Of these, one is called πεντάδωρον, is the Greek for “palm,” for in Greek δῶρον means the giving of gifts, and the gift is always presented in the palm of the hand. A brick five palms square is called Public buildings are constructed of πεντάδωρα, private of τετράδωρα.
3.3. Fiunt autem laterum genera tria: unum, quod graece Lydium appellatur, id est quo nostri utuntur, longum sesquipede, latum pede. ceteris duobus Graecorum aedificia struuntur; ex his unum πεντάδωρον, alterum τετράδωρον dicitur. δῶρον autem Graeci appellant palmum, quod munerum datio graece δῶρον appellatur, id autem semper geritur per manus palmum. ita quod est quoquoversus quinque palmorum, pentadoron, quod quattuor, tetradoron dicitur, et quae sunt publica opera, πεντάδωρως, quae privata, τετράδωρως struuntur.
3.4. 4. With these bricks there are also half-bricks. When these are used in a wall, a course of bricks is laid on one face and a course of half-bricks on the other, and they are bedded to the line on each face. The walls are bonded by alternate courses of the two different kinds, and as the bricks are always laid so as lends strength and a not unattractive appearance to both sides of such walls. In the states of Maxilua and Callet, in Further Spain, as well as in Pitane in Asia Minor, there are bricks which, when finished and dried, will float on being thrown into water. The reason why they can float seems to be that the clay of which they are made is like pumice-stone. So it is light, and also it does not, after being hardened by exposure to the air, take up or absorb liquid. So these bricks, being of this light and porous quality, and admitting no moisture into their texture, must by the laws of nature float in water, like pumice, no matter what their weight may be. They have therefore great advantages; for they are not heavy to use in building and, once made, they are not spoiled by bad weather.
3.4. Fiunt autem cum his lateribus semilateria. quae cum struuntur, una parte lateribus ordines, altera semilateres ponuntur. ergo ex utraque parte ad lineam cum struuntur, alternis coriis parietes alligantur et medii lateres supra coagmenta conlocati et firmitatem et speciem faciunt utraque parte non invenustam. Est autem in Hispania ulteriore civitas Maxilua et Callet et in Asia Pitane, ubi lateres, cum sunt ducti et arefacti, proiecti natant in aqua. natare autem eos posse ideo videtur, quod terra est, de qua ducuntur, pumicosa. ita cum est levis, aere solidata non recipit in se nec combibit liquorem. igitur levi raraque cum sit proprietate, quocumque pondere fuerit, cogitur ab rerum natura, quemadmodum pumex uti ab aqua sustineatur. sic autem magnas habent utilitates, quod neque in aedificationibus sunt onerosi et, cum non patiantur penetrare in corpus umidam potestatem, a tempestatibus non dissolvuntur.
4.1. 1. IN walls of masonry the first question must be with regard to the sand, in order that it may be fit to mix into mortar and have no dirt in it. The kinds of pitsand are these: black, gray, red, and carbuncular. Of these the best will be found to be that which crackles when rubbed in the hand, while that which has much dirt in it will not be sharp enough. Again: throw some sand upon a white garment and then shake it out; if the garment is not soiled and no dirt adheres to it, the sand is suitable.
4.1. In caementiciis autem structuris primum est de harena quaerendum, ut ea sit idonea ad materiem miscendam neque habeat terram commixtam. genera autem harenae fossiciae sunt haec: nigra, cana, rubra, carbunculus. ex his quae in manu confricata fecerit stridorem, erit optima; quae autem terrosa fuerit, non habebit asperitatem. item si in vestimentum candidum ea coniecta fuerit, postea excussa vel icta id non inquinarit neque ibi terra subsiderit, erit idonea.
4.2. 2. But if there are no sandpits from which it can be dug, then we must sift it out from river beds or from gravel or even from the sea beach. This kind, however, has these defects when used in masonry: it dries slowly; the wall cannot be built up without interruption but from time to time there must be pauses in the work; and such a wall cannot carry vaultings. Furthermore, when sea-sand is used in walls and these are coated with stucco, a salty efflorescence is given out which spoils the surface.
4.2. Sin autem non erunt harenaria, unde fodiatur, tum de fluminibus aut e glarea erit excernenda, non minus etiam de litore marino. sed ea in structuris haec habet vitia: difficulter siccescit, neque onerari se continenter paries patitur, nisi intermissionibus requiescat, neque concamerationes recipit. marina autem hoc amplius, quod etiam parietes, cum in îs tectoria facta fuerint, remittente se salsugine eorum dissolvuntur.
4.3. 3. But pitsand used in masonry dries quickly, the stucco coating is permanent, and the walls can support vaultings. I am speaking of sand fresh from the sandpits. For if it lies unused too long after being taken out, it is disintegrated by exposure to sun, moon, or hoar frost, and becomes earthy. So when mixed in masonry, it has no binding power on the rubble, which consequently settles and down comes the load which the walls can no longer support. Fresh pitsand, however, in spite of all its excellence in concrete structures, is not equally useful in stucco, the richness of which, when the lime and straw are mixed with such sand, will cause it to crack as it dries on account of the great strength of the mixture. But river sand, though useless in “signinum” on account of its thinness, becomes perfectly solid in stucco when thoroughly worked by means of polishing instruments.
4.3. Fossiciae vero celeriter in structuris siccescunt, et tectoria permanent, et concamerationes patiuntur, sed eae, quae sunt de harenariis recentes. si enim exemptae diutius iacent, ab sole et luna et pruina concoctae resolvuntur et fiunt terrosae. ita cum in structuram coiciuntur, non possunt continere caementa, sed ea ruunt et labuntur oneraque parietes non possunt sustinere. recentes autem fossiciae cum in structuris tantas habeant virtutes, eae in tectoriis ideo non sunt utiles, quod pinguitudini eius calx commixta propter vehementiam non potest sine rimis inarescere. fluviatica vero propter macritatem uti signinum liaculorum subactionibus in tectorio recipit soliditatem.
5.1. 1. SAND and its sources having been thus treated, next with regard to lime we must be careful that it is burned from a stone which, whether soft or hard, is in any case white. Lime made of close-grained stone of the harder sort will be good in structural parts; lime of porous stone, in stucco. After slaking it, mix your mortar, if using pitsand, in the proportions of three parts of sand to one of lime; if using river or sea-sand, mix two parts of sand with one of lime. These will be the right proportions for the composition of the mixture. Further, in using river or sea-sand, the addition of a third part composed of burnt brick, pounded up and sifted, will make your mortar of a better composition to use.
5.1. De harenae copiis cum habeatur explicatum, tum etiam de calce diligentia est adhibenda, uti de albo saxo aut silice coquatur; et quae erit ex spisso et duriore, erit utilis in structura, quae autem ex fistuloso, in tectoriis. cum ea erit extincta, tunc materia ita misceatur, ut, si erit fossicia, tres harenae et una calcis infundatur; si autem fluviatica aut marina, duo harenae, una calcis coiciatur. ita enim erit iusta ratio mixtionis temperaturae. etiam in fluviatica aut marina si qui testam tunsam et succretam ex tertia parte adiecerit, efficiet materiae temperaturam ad usum meliorem.
5.2. 2. The reason why lime makes a solid structure on being combined with water and sand seems to be this: that rocks, like all other bodies, are composed of the four elements. Those which contain a larger proportion of air, are soft; of water, are tough from the moisture; of earth, hard; and of fire, more brittle. Therefore, if limestone, without being burned, is merely pounded up small and then mixed with sand and so put into the work, the mass does not solidify nor can it hold together. But if the stone is first thrown into the kiln, it loses its former property of solidity by exposure to the great heat of the fire, and so with its strength burnt out and exhausted it is left with its pores open and empty. Hence, the moisture and air in the body of the stone being burned out and set free, and only a residuum of heat being left lying in it, if the stone is then immersed in water, the moisture, before the water can feel the influence of the fire, makes its way into the open pores; then the stone begins to get hot, and finally, after it cools off, the heat is rejected from the body of the lime.
5.2. Quare autem cum recipit aquam et harenam calx, tunc confirmat structuram, haec esse causa videtur, quod e principiis, uti cetera corpora, ita et saxa sunt temperata. et quae plus habent aeris, sunt tenera; quae aquae, lenta sunt ab umore; quae terrae, dura; quae ignis, fragiliora. itaque ex his saxa si, antequam coquantur, contusa minute mixta harenae in structuram coiciantur, non solidescunt nec eam poterunt continere. cum vero coniecta in fornacem ignis vehementi fervore correpta amiserint pristinae soliditatis virtutem, tunc exustis atque exhaustis eorum viribus relinquuntur patentibus foraminibus et inanibus.